International trade theory has experienced three development phases from classical trade theory to new classical trade theory, and then from new classical trade theory to the three development phases of the new trade theory. The process of this development is accompanied by the development of the real economy, and is the development of economic theory and continuous advancement. Some scholars in China have discreced to understand this development process, so that the confusion of certain theories and even policy issues. Therefore, we need to elaborate on the development stage of international trade theory, and its relevant standards and content. This paper tries to study the development phase of international trade theory, the standards and theoretical content of the division stage.
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There are three basic issues to answer international trade pure theory, namely, international trade reasons, structural and international trade results. The reasons for international trade must be explained, why do countries participate in international trade, what is its motivation? What is the structure of international trade to answer? What is the production structure or division of labor of international trade? This is to answer what the commodity structure of a country exports or imports in international trade. What is the result of international trade should answer questions that international trade will bring economic benefits to the country. To answer these three basic questions, there is also the establishment of international trade theory premise. The international trade theory is different from a certain economic theory.
We believe that international trade theory has experienced three basic development phases. The first stage of the development of international trade theory is classical trade theory. The basic premise of this theory is that enterprises are completely competitive companies; when the production factor is turned from one department to another department, or other departments is the opportunity cost of increasing a certain commodity production; a country's production materials in the country It is fully utilized within the scope; production factors are not flowing between countries. Countries are not intervened with commodity trade. The core content of classical trade theory is the theory of interest. This theory has two expressions from different aspects. One is the technical difference theory. Technical difference matter believes that the basis of trade between countries is that they produce the price difference between the same product or homogeneous commodity; this basic reason for this price difference is the difference in labor productivity when producing this commodity production; in production Under the assumption of production factors - labor-based, this difference in labor productivity is shown as differences in labor proficiency in various countries, making the cost difference between unit products. Here, it is essentially comparable to labor productivity when producing the same product, thus the difference in labor proficiency in countries. Under the conditions of producing two products. The difference in labor productivity in the same commodity production is further manifested, and countries in production of the same product are relative labor productivity, that is, the difference in opportunities for producing a certain product. In the case of only two countries in the world, when the labor productivity of the two products in the production of two products is higher than that in another country, from relatively meaning, the country specializes in the production rate of labor. When you can play the comparative advantage of our own labor, the production factors of the country will be put into goods that have a relatively low cost of producing their opportunities. Furthermore, through trade exchanged to the product of the country to give up production. Accordingly, although the labor productivity of two products produces two products is lower than another country, it can still produce products with lower cost of their own (relative to foreign). Further, through exchange, it is obtained from the country to abandon production. Here the technical differences here - the difference in labor productivity has become the cause of international trade and division of labor and decisions to specifically produce certain commodity structures. This trade and division of labor have benefited all parties to participate in international trade. Therefore, in this theoretical proposal - Adam Smith and David LI Jia map, the difference in labor productivity or technical differences is the basic cause of price differences in the production of the same product, this price difference and its producer The pursuit of higher prices is the reasons or motivation for international trade; each country specializes in the production of its own advantageous products and exchanges the structure of the international division of labor according to our needs; national trade can get the actual income level Improvement is the result of international trade. International trade is maintained and developed based on factors based on obtaining and maintaining this result. Another point of view of classical international trade theory is to produce production factors. In its proposal, Hector and Bertel Olylin see that the production factors in real production are not just a kind of labor, but a variety of, and the two production factors are the basics in the production process. condition. According to the production factor endowment theory, the price difference between the two countries produces the same product in the production of the same product in various countries, the cost difference comes from the cost difference from the product, which is from the price of the production factor used in the production. Differences, this price difference of this production factor is determined in the relative abundance of various production factors in the country. Due to the difference in the production factors required by various product production, a country is low in production, and the cost is low, and the product is produced in the production factor of producing intensive use of other countries. At the time, the cost is relatively high, thereby forming the price advantage of various countries production and exchange products. Further, international trade and international division of labor. At this time, the country specializes in products that have cost-effective products, and exchanges foreign countries have cost advantages. In the international trade theory, this theoretical view is also known as the narrow production factor.
The broad production factor endowment pointed out that when international trade makes the country in which trade, the price of goods is equal, and the two countries produce the same product under the premise of production factors. In the case of the technical level (or the same technical intensity of the same product), international trade determines the endowment of various countries' production factors. The production structure of countries is produced, and each country specializes in producing intensive use of domestic products that are relatively rich in production factors. The production factors are assumed that the production factors have maintained the chance of increasing the production of some kinds of products in various departments. The production factor endowment is that the two economists of Sweden Heckham and Bertel Olympic, Olympic, Olympic, on his teacher Heckhell, systematically discussed the production factor endowment theory . This theory has broken through the perspective of simplification of international trade, structural and results of structural and results from the perspective of technical differences, but from the fact that it is close to reality, the reasons, structures and results of international trade. 1 The commonality of technological differences and production factors is in fact that they are all causes or cost differences in the production of the same product in various countries as the causes and power of international trade. Therefore, although the two theories are time to 150 years, their theoretical origins have no fundamental changes. We measure whether the basic scale of this change is: whether they have fundamentally changed the economics foundation; whether their theory itself is established in different power mechanisms, that is, whether it has changed the price difference as a reason or power View. There is no substantial change in these two aspects. 2 Therefore, we collect technical differences and production factors to the content of the interests, thus constitute the content of classical trade theory.
We know that the assumption of classical international trade theory: only two countries; the production factors used in production are one, or two types; both countries can produce two items; in various countries, production factors are transferred between sectors, increase The opportunity cost of producing some kind of product is unchanged; the production factor is free to flow between the departments of the country, and there is no free flow between countries. These assumptions are theoretically acceptable, but the distance explains the reality still has a certain distance.
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The second stage of international trade theory development is the new classical international trade theory. The new classical international trade theory is to relax the international trade theory formed after classical trade theory, and the new classical international trade theory has been relaxed for these assumptions, thus got a new point of view. First, classical trade theory put forward, two countries, produce two products. Realistic international trade is not just two products. These scholars link two countries to produce a variety of products. It is proposed that under various product production conditions, each country can always export some of the cost-effective goods, and imported another part of the country Disadvantageous products. This analysis did not change the basic principles of classical international trade theory, but it promoted the scope of use of classical trade theory, that is, both products or a variety of products, international trade can be interpreted with comparative interest theory. Second, classical trade theory assumptions, countries only use one or two production factors production products, in real production, people are not only two. Erroslav • Wan Nich pointed out in its famous papers "Essence of factors - the situation of various elements", in a variety of production elements, it can also produce more elements to produce more elements according to the analysis methods of two production factors. The product is arranged in accordance with the relative price ratio of the product, and the series of elements endowment is more advantageous in the product price, and can still be able to obtain the basic conclusions of Hector and Olympia. Third, classical trade theory assumptions, when countries in order to achieve specialized division of labor, the production factor is turned from one department to another department, and the opportunity cost will not change. It is based on this hypothesis, and the trade structure of countries is expressed as completely specialized international divisions. Because the international price of the national advantageous product is higher than the domestic price of the closed, the country will increase its product production. When the chance cost or marginal cost remains unchanged, the country's resources will gradually focus on their own advantageous departments. Since the producer producers increase its production, the marginal cost remains unchanged. As a result, all resources or production elements of the country focus on producing their own advantageous products, forming all countries fully specialized international division of labor. However, in reality, when the production factor is transferred from a product to another product, the cost changes due to the scarcity of resources. One of this change is an increase in opportunity cost. The cost of opportunities means that when the product production of comparative advantage has increased, the national general meeting has not yet realized a complete professional production level to rise to the level of marginal income, so that the country's production cannot achieve complete specialization. It can be seen that when the hypothesis condition is relaxed, the assumption of classical trade theory on complete professional production and trade, or the trade structure will have some degree of adjustment. Therefore, its conclusions are closer to some realities of the interpretation of the international trade structure. That is, there are few cases in the real trade. Fourth, the analysis of classical trade is based on static analysis and analysis. From a dynamic perspective, the total amount of production factors in one country will change. From the total amount of labor, due to the natural growth of the labor force in various stages of the economy, the natural growth of labor is present, that is, with the development of a country, its labor is beginning to grow more people, and then accelerate, to the economic development stage The speed of slow down. On the other hand, with the development of a country, the proportion of consumption in the income of its residents will be reduced, and the proportion of savings is increasing, so the capital stock of one country will be straight as the country's economy increase. The linear growth of capital is combined with the "∩" growth of the labor force, making the country 's richness change, so as to follow the Hector - Olympian conclusion, the country's trading structure and the status of the international division of labor It will change.
Among the comparative advantage of classical international trade theory, the differences in technologies are an important foundation for international trade. It is based on the establishment of a technique that is not technically propagated between countries. However, in reality, there are technical mutual communication in all countries, which is conducive to companies to get more profits. Fernoman's product life cycle theory, not only pointing out the driving force of multinational companies, and multinational companies have brought technology proliferation to foreign investment, and thus the technical advantages of technical inventive countries have lost their technical advantages in some product production, and Turn this advantage to other countries. The transfer of a certain product technology advantage has brought the change in trade structure, that is, from the exporting country of the product, it turns into importers, and some past importing countries, due to the introduction of technology into an exporter. From a state perspective, this technological transfer brings an improvement in the income level of technology importers, but the theory of multinational companies tell us that there is a profit share of a multinational company and a certain interest group of the host country. Technical proliferation and technology transfer theory have new impact on classical trade theory. That is, the international trade advantage based on the technical differences in various countries is not a long-term unchanging amount. In contrast, the international trade advantage based on technical differences is a process of continuous spread. The technology diffusion shows that if the technical invention country cannot continuously invented new technologies, its technical advantages will disappear, and deeper significance is that technology proliferation will gradually be based on technical differences. Reduce, there will be, there is a "decreasing" on foreign trade. Classical trade theory is also assumed that production factors are not flowing between countries. However, in reality, if the flow of production factors can bring more benefits to the relevant enterprises, the flow of capital may occur. In 1957, Robert Mondel issued an important papers "The relationship between commodity flow and capital flow". In the paper, Mondel description from the perspective of the equivalent of factor prices, the mutual alternative effect of product flow and capital flow on the price of production factors. This means that when the freedom of goods encounters obstacles, the capital flow will replace the product flow to achieve a variety of production factors. From another perspective, US economists Wang Kaiwa (1963) proposed the mutual supplementary relationship of commodity flow and production factors to a certain extent, that is, international trade may only be in consideration of production factors. Partially promoting the role of energization of factors. Therefore, after relaxing, the production factor cannot be freely flowing between countries, and the price of the price is equivalent to a certain supplement, that is, the price of the production factors can not only be implemented by free trade, but also through production factors. The cross-border flow is achieved, or the flow of commodity flow and production factors can work simultaneously, and achieve the equalization of the price of production factors. However, regardless of this hypothetical condition, it is important for classical international trade theory, and two basic aspects of classical trade theory cannot be changed. First, the basic reason for international trade is the establishment of commodity price differences on a relatively cost difference; Second, the analysis of international trade is based on a completely competitive market structure. Therefore, classical international trade theory is the theory of freedom of competition market structure. three
The third stage of the development of international trade theory is the stage of the development of new trade theory. Yes, we have noticed that opportunities for producing some kinds of products are not unchanged, but change. The first form of this change is that the opportunity cost is incremented. Another form is the chance cost reduction. In fact, the other side of the opportunity cost is increasing is incremented by the returns caused by the scale economy. The so-called size economy refers to the effect of gradually decline with the expansion of production scale. It can be expressed as TC / Q = Fc / Q VC / Q. In the formula, q indicates the product of the product, and TC represents the total cost of the Q-quantity product, and the Fc represents the fixing cost of the production of goods, which will decrease the fixed cost of each unit product as its yield increases. . VC represents the variable cost of the product, which does not decrease as product output increases, but remains unchanged. The economies of scale mean that companies can reduce the dominant position of the unit cost of commodities by expanding their production scale. At the same time, the pursuit of corporate economic effects will bring products in an industry or industrial exclusive enhancement, and the first enterprises can gradually expand their production scale to form the cost advantage of the unit products, thus the price advantage. This is a market forces or market control capabilities that have achieved significant economic effects. On the other hand, Joan Robinson believes that although we assume that the market is completely competitive, most markets are incompletely competitive in reality. The reason is that any enterprise wants to obtain a manipulation of market prices, or control. The convenient way to obtain monopoly or control is the production difference product. From the perspective of consumers, with the improvement of income levels, consumers must not only pursue the increase in consumption of consumer goods, so as to improve their consumption, they can also choose the most suitable for the supply of various similar products. I am willing to consume product to improve their well-welfare level. So from the conditions of closed economy, the market exhibits incomplete competition from two aspects. First, the scale economy excludes the possibility of enterprise freedom to enter certain departments. Second, difference products means enterprises pursue control product prices. The possibility. Both of these have broken the market structure of the original free competition. However, within a national market, the pursuit of scale economic effects and pursuit of differences is contradictory. Because the scale economic effect requires large-scale and homologous products, it brings a decline in market prices. However, the pursuit of differential products requires small batch and heterogeneous products. The best way to solve this contradictory is to carry out international trade. Because international trade can make mass-produced products in different countries, there is a small batch product in each country, and become different products. This basic view is made a complete and accurate discussion by Paul Krugeman's classic papers in its international trading theory, "payment, difference products and international trade". There, Paul Krugeman sets out the above views very systematically. The scale of scale economy and difference product emphasizes that under the condition of scale economics, producers and consumers' pursuit of difference products is the cause of international trade, the pursuit of scale economic effects, thus the pursuit of exceeding profit It is the driving force generated by international trade. This theoretical point of view also means that the structure of international trade is uncertain, because the international trade established on the basis of scale economic effects implies such two important hypothesis conditions, one is the difference between countries with no technical level; Second, the production factor endowment in various countries is not necessarily different, and it can even be said that international trade can still exist under the same conditions of the production factor endowment in the trading country. At this time, the fundamental difference between the trade structure and the previous international trade structure is that the international trade disclosed by classical trade theory is the trade between industrial or department, and international trade based on economies and difference products is an industrial trade. In industrial trade, the interests of exporters is the sum of the market forces and economies of economies that are not fully competitive. The importer's interest is to meet the consumption of consumption in the consumption difference product, and it is improved in the level of welfare.
According to the view of Paul Krugeman, since the fact that the economy endowment can obtain economic benefits through industry trade, then the trade conflict will disappear between countries' endowment or the same basis. It is the production and export difference products of various companies in industries. The second important theory of the new trade theory is the mutual dumping theory. Zhan Mos Brand and Paul Krugeman pointed out in its famous papers "The Mutual Dumping Model of International Trade" (1983), the oligarchy manufacturer is maximized enterprise profit, will increase product production The price below the national market is sold abroad. Despite the surface of the product in foreign markets, the sales price of products in foreign markets has been reduced, but from the perspective of profit margin, if this sales does not affect the price of other products sold in the country, then the manufacturer is obtained. The total profit level is improved. The same truth, manufacturers in other countries will also take the same strategy to sell the product sales to the other country market, and the trade formed by this mutual dumping behavior is not due to the production of different countries, and It is because their respective pursuits are maximized. It can be seen that in mutual dumping trade theory, the reasons for countries to carry out foreign trade are only the market sales strategy of monopoly or oligarchy. Furthermore, the structure of international trade is neither limited by product costs, which in turn is limited to factor endowment, nor is also limited by producers and consumers to pursue different products. At the same time, the interests of international trade on the market have come from the monopoly profit obtained by countries and the monopoly profits obtained by "dumping" and the sales prices in the national market remain unchanged. In order to illustrate this, we assume that A country's monopoly manufacturers have 1 million production and sales of vehicles, a unit price of 200 million US dollars, and if it increases the production capacity of 1,000, sales in the domestic market, in order to make market absorption Increased supply, companies must reduce the market price of the product. (Because the oligopoly enterprise is facing a downward tilt demand curve), for example, a price reduction of $ 200. That is, the price of $ 19,800 per quantity. In this case, the company receives an additional $ 19.8 million due to increased production and sales of 1,000 cars. However, when companies reducing their commodities, they must not only reduce the price of new products, but also the original price of 1 million cars to the same level as the price of new products, that is, 50,000 US dollars to 19800. US dollar, 1 million cars reduce revenue 20 million due to price cuts. As a result, the total income also decreased by $ 200,000 after an increase in production. It is obviously the original intention to increase production and sales. In this regard, the company's decision is to "dumping" abroad with the price below the price below the national market. At this time, even if the price of the car is relatively low in foreign markets, it is not caused by a large decline in the overall sales revenue and profit. If the size of the economy and difference product trade theory has created a new stage of new trade theory, the mutual dumping trade theory will establish international trade theory on the basis of incomplete competition to a higher level: even if commodities produced by countries There is no difference, monopoly or olived monopoly enterprises can still carry out trade between countries for the pursuit of maximum profit. The market strategy of incomplete competition, making the structure of international trade more uncertain. There, since international trade produces market strategies determined by enterprises to get the maximum profit, trade structure only serves the market strategy of monopoly enterprises or to obtain the standard of maximum profit. Therefore, the mutual dumping trade theory pointed out that one of the reasons for modern international trade is the market strategy of incomplete competition. Under this market strategy, the structure of trade is only due to the pursuit of maximum profit by countries. The third important aspect of the new trade theory is an international trade on the basis of the external economy. The so-called external scale economy refers to the additional compensation or external advantages of enterprises due to the advantages of enterprises. According to external scale economic trade theory, a reason for trade advantages or has no trade advantages is not in the difference in absolute elements between countries, but is the development scale of the relevant departments at a certain time.
In general, if a country has developed significantly in a certain industry, it will form an industry scale advantage. This advantage is that the industry has a labor force for common use, which can adjust the rest of the enterprises; at the same time, the industry has a large scale, which helps technology advances and technological achievements. In summate, the size of the industry is conducive to the sharing of resources or production factors, enabling economic benefits under its own enterprise. Conversely, if in a country, the industry is small, the company's survival and development requires a company to be "small", otherwise it is difficult to maintain normal production, "Small and full" in the case of production scale It will lead to a high cost of product units, making it no competitiveness in the international market. In the past trade theory, our so-called a country has an advantage in the production of some kinds of products, and it is the advantage of enterprise advantages and industry advantages. In the new trade theory, the advantages of enterprises are in two forms. First, the internal scale economy of the company, and the other is the external economy of the enterprise. The internal scale economy of the company can make the company itself produce competitive advantage, and the external economy of enterprises is the company's advantage that the industry is produced. Both advantages lead to the production of international trade. There are countries with factors and economic trade balances, so they can't be in a disadvantage in a certain industry, which may have not developed in this industry, so the industry is limited, and it is difficult to have the advantage of external scale economy. "Dry Middle School" is a way to develop this industry in the country. It can be seen that developing countries need to obtain certain economies of economic advantages or industry scale advantages under the intervention of the government. The new trade theory described in the above three aspects is the cause, structure and results of international trade from the perspective of production. In these theories, the basic premise of international trade has changed. Due to modern enterprises pursue the manipulation of the market, this market structure has been different from typical complete free competition, which is a market structure that is not completely competitive in this market structure. The key here is that modern economics, thus the international trade theory has confirmed the fact that such an incompletely competitive market structure, and incorporating this fact into the thinking of international trade theory. This change in the basic premise of trade theory marks the new development of international trade theory, even if the international trade theory has entered the stage of development of new trade. On this basis, the international trade theory has established international trade theory based on economies and difference products, in which the theory of mutual dumping trade is, and external scale economic trade theory. The core of these theories is that companies or industries with certain incomplete competitive advantages have obtained competitive advantages in international trade with their own advantages, which expanded the theoretical view of the reasons, structures and results of international trade. Many new phenomena in modern trade have got a more practical explanation.
The new trade theory not only explains the reasons, structures and results of international trade from the perspective of supply, but also explains modern international trade from the perspective of demand. Linde believes that there is a representative demand level in each country. Representative demand levels indicate a national average income level or most of the income level. Representative consumer goods in this income level are the leading leading to the development of consumer goods industry. Because the products produced by enterprises are only in line with most consumers, their production is easy to achieve scale economy, which helps companies get higher profit margins. Any country in another area, due to the difference in income levels, the need must also have differences. Therefore, a country specializes in producing a commission of representative demand, which means that it does not meet other income consumers' consumption of similar products. International trade can solve contradictions in the production of producers to achieve large-scale economic and meet consumer consumption in a certain level of products. That is, the countries can produce their own representative products, and exported to such a product, while importing products produced by other countries from different countries, meet the needs of other income level consumers. Representative demand trade theory shows that in the production of consumer goods, the scale economy is easy to form in the production of representative needs of all countries; countries with income are relatively close, and their trade is more, because their representative demand is close to each other. The need to meet the needs of consumers who meet different income levels; thereby inference, the larger the gap between the income levels between the two countries, the smaller the possibility of mutual trade; international trade based on representative demand is Trade between different grades of products within the same product. This is a manifestation of industry trade. The central issue of new trade theory is to explain the industrial trade in the Second World War. According to this theory, industrial trade is the trade between various finished products within the second industry. This kind of trade is based on incomplete competition or machine production. Therefore, it tends to exclude competition, forming large-scale enterprises to control the extent of production and market in an industry product product; this production scale economy has three conclusions in international trade. First, due to the international trade caused by the incomplete competition of the pursuit of difference products; the second is due to the mutual dumping (trade) caused by the market strategy of the company; the third is the industry advantage generated by the external economic effect, thus The trade (export) of the incomplete competition (export), and the country, which will be discussed, is the "dry middle school" required to obtain a business advantage. On the other hand, industrial trade caused by demand is due to the multi-level sexual needs of representative demand and demand to create conditions to large-scale development to large-scale development. Thereby an international trade established under differences in differences. In addition, the new trade theory also tries to explain the relationship between multinational companies and international trade, where Helpman is not trading from foreign direct investment, but truly introduces international trade from the perspective of enterprise choices. However, according to the description, so far, the new trade theory is mainly the above four aspects.
It can be seen from the above basic analysis that international trade theory is divided into basic premise, can be divided into classical trade theory and new trade theory; from the progressive development of trade theory, international trade theory is divided into classical trade theory, new classical trade theory and new trade Theoretical three development phases.
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Since then, Paul Sarresen, Edward. Lima has further discussed the theory of equality of elements. In Saruelson, the "Dulpar Sar Messen theorem. That is, the tariff protection of any domestic intensive production factor products will help the scarce production factor income level improvement. This is the production factor Some scholars believe that the previous trade theory of new trade theory is known as traditional trade theory seems to be more in line with people's general perspective, but one of the scientific tasks is that according to certain standards Divided into different development phases.
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Paul Krugeman Morris Oboster Felder compiled "International Economics" Avinash K.Dixit and Victor Norman: "Product Difference and IntrainduStry Trade" from the theory of international trade.
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Press 1980. Elhanan Helpman and Paul Krugman: Trade Policy and Market Structure MIT Press 1989. Imperfect Competition and International Trade edited by Gene M Grossman MIT Press 1992 Brander JA and P.Krugman "A Reciprocal Dumping Model of International Trade" Journal of International. . Economics, 1982, pp313-321 Harry.P Bowen, Edward E.Leamer, and Leo Sveikauskas: "Multicountry, Multifactor Tests of the Factor Abundance Theory" American Economic Review December 1987 pp791-809 Kai-yue Wong:. International Trade and in Goods and Factor Mobility MIT Press 1997. Wassily Leontief: "Domestic Production and Foreign Trade; The American Capital Position Re-examined" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.97, No.4, September 1952. Wilfred J.Ethier: "The Multinational Firm" Quarterly Journal of Economics 101, November 1986 PP805-834
