Sender: bbcallen (not on the sand to build a high platform), the letter area: CS Title: Arbelome - Carl Popul Send Station: Wuhan Baiyun Yinhe Station (December 06, 2004 15:16 Monday ), Station letters
Bulkal Popper
The Ariston [Ariston] of the Ariston [Ariston] of the Ariston, born in 427 BC, was born 347 BC, and was 80 years old. Perhaps the greatest thinker all the times, he is not only a philosopher, but also the founder of political theory (he is involved in practical politics) and sociology; and he is physiologist and the universe. His direct and indirect impact on Europe (therefore there is also the United States) cannot be estimated. His impact seems to be beneficial or no, it is a recent controversial issue. Because of its political philosophy of political philosophy, hostility for democracy, as he said, "smart people should lead and rule, ignorant should obey" ("Legal article [Laws] 690B), as his social theory is Collectivism, like hostility for individualism: "You are created for overall, not a whole for you," ("Legal article 903C). He believes that individualism is a self-contrasticism, and collective self-contrastism is to let himague, and it is ignored this fact, that is, people's selfless may not only for "overall" (collective, country) and for other individuals.
Plato's strong interest in political social issues seems to have two roots. One is a family tradition that is responsible for social responsibility. (His father claimed to be the last one of the last King Coduros [Codrus] in Athens, his mother claimed to be the descendants of the relatives of Schlen [sclon]. The other is to collapse political and social collapses. The terrible experience, in the last few years of the War of Bernony (419-44 BC "Dixia War") not only affected Athens but also affected the entire Greek world. This period is in a coincident with Plato's personality. For him, his friend and teacher Socate [Socrates] was tried and killed in BC, and his interest in politics reached a climax.
The Bernonneza war (or the war, 431 - 404 BC), is not only the two strongest city countries in Greece. It can be said that it became the war of the first concept of concept, which contains some persecution of the original large-scale conceptual form. The conflict is carried out in the vision of the sea trade empire ("Tiolo Alliance") in the concept of tribal, authoritarian (perhaps even polar) Sparta. Some of the major families of Athens and their democratic allies traditionally reanfine democracy and advocating oligarchy, and sympathy, this is more terrible. (So Aristotle "Aristotle" mentioned in his "Political Science" [Politics, 1310A], the vow of the oligarchy is still popular in his era; it is "I guarantee the enemy of the people." , Try to make harmful advice to them. "
At 404 of the BC, the Lusistram [Lysistratus] occupied Athens, where he established an oligarchy government, under the protection of Sparta, called 30 僭 僭. Thirty older mainly leadership of the Plato, the talented Creitias [Critias "and the young Chamiess [charmides]. In the eight months of their terrorist rule, thirty monks killed many Athens citizens - more than the Athenians who killed in the last ten years of the war (Meiyer [Eduard Meyer, 1884-1902) ], "Ancient History" [Geschichtedes Altertums] 4th edition, Stuttgart, 1953-1958, Volume 5, page 34). However, in 403 BC, Plato was 24 years old, Creitias and Spartan were attacked by democratic artist who came back and was defeated. The democracy was originally only seventy people, led by Color Lassebulus [Thrasybulus] and Anatus [Anytus], they first occupied Braieves and Plato's two sorrows. For a while, their oligarchic followers continue terrorism in Athens, but their army is in chaos and tattoo. After proved that he was unable to rule, they finally abandoned by their Spartan protector, Sparta protector set up a treaty with the democracy. This peaceful treaty rebuilt the Democratic Policy in Athens. Therefore, the democratic policy proves its strength of the strength under the most severe test, and even the enemy has also begun to think that it is invincible after a few years. The restored democratic country has re-established normal legal states, as "poisonous youth crimes" put forward the Socrates; it's very clear: he was accused of poisoning Asia Pi De [Alcibiades], Crelas And Chamiths, people think they should be responsible for the defeat of Athens and the bloody rule of thirties. In his defense, Socrates stressed that he did not approves the policies of thirty-princes. He has born dangerously resistant to an attempt to implicate him into a crime. He also explains that he is never to stop his thoughts from youth free expression. Because it is guilty, he has become the first martyr who is freedom of speech.
This is the case in the most important personality of Plato's most important personality. They make him propose their basic questions during mature: society and the country have been sick, how can I cure them?
The beginning of a literary activity. The above historical events affect Plato in the indicated meaning, which is of course guess. It should have been emphasized that almost a development of Plato's ideological development, his order, everything in his life is guess. Our original information seems to be large and dependent on it. Therefore, we cannot confirm that this story of Plato is not a legend. Probably the oldest original information, "Plato's letter" [Book ofPlato's Letters] is probably an ancient fake. Even many scholars admit that their true and most influential "seventh letter" [seventh letter] is also suspicious. (Some other works levy by Plato are almost undoubted.) However, even if the "seventh letter" may be forged, it seems to be very old, and the author must have the fact that Plato is in fact, so that he can make him The fake is accepted by people. Regarding the time order of Plato's work, now we have something from smaller style characteristics seems to be very full evidence ("work style learning" [style]). However, this method (it substantially leads to the group of groups) to modify or override his book in Plato, will fail. (We seem to have an independent evidence of at least one book "Thael 2" [ThaeteTus], see Popper "Open Society and Its Enemy" [1945] 1963, Volume I, Appendix II.) In this entire narrative, you must think of these uncertain things. Most of the literary works of Plato consists of "Socrate's dialogue" - the main conversations of Socrates and smarters. Other writers also wrote the conversation of Socrates, famous is Coloneni; but most of the Plato's dialogue has a very rich feature, so we can guess the Plato created this literary form. If this is the case, then some scholars have expressed their views, that is, the Socrate's tragic death, Berra, becomes a writer - becomes the author of the Socrate's dialogue, to commemorate (and defend) his friends and teachers - - Not only tempting and it is likely to be true. This point of view also shows that "Socrate's Ideas" - Plato's defense and convicted reports in Socrates - is the first work of Plato. It is undeniable that there is an important evidence to refute this: "The Deals" is a masterpiece, in the phases, many early dialogue are immature. On the other hand, a writer's first work indicates that he will not reach the peak that will reach soon, this is not rare; in this particular example, the unique personality of Socrates and his debate in the court Direct impression of him (Plato is very clear about him) may fully explain that one of the greatest and most touching works of all literature will be a preliminary results of a newcomer.
In any case, the "Ideal Article" as the true portrayal of Socrates in history, seeing to lighten the loyal report (when the "defense articles" were published, hundreds of witnesses in these lawsuits were certain) It is reasonable unless we have a reliable opposite evidence. This is a singular portrayal, which is the first time that can be called "critical rationalism" (or, considering the novelin [Xenophanes] and Oili Passis [Euripides], almost the first time) and the greatest Declaration - Socrate's unique point of view, that is, we should realize that we know why, we can learn from all theories and beliefs. Although it is almost impossible to become a generally accepted point of view, it is extremely important to Western Thoughts (and Western Sciences). The critical rationalism of Socrates is not a skeptical, it is not proud of sensibility and intelligence: he believes in truth, believes in people, and he is also convinced that people 's internal error and inner kindness. In addition, he is loyal to the democratic law of Athens, hate the crime of thirty-prince: he is a democracy, although the democratic leader did not give him a deep impression of a democratic party; he is enthusiastic to care about others; he is willing to freedom Death is dead, but despise the tips. The three periods of Plato work. Here is proposed to divide the work of Plato into three periods. In the first time, or the Socrate period, Plato showed a portrayal of Socrates as a person, teacher, and love the truth. Its dialogue (I only mentioned "Kreto" [crito], "Pro-tagoras] and" Mannod "[Meno]) neither oppose democracy Oppose individual value.
In the second period, the Attitude of Plato has changed due to the Socrates in his conversation: Plato now condemns the Social Athens - not, the democratic organs itself, the people of most people . The rule of this public threatens every justice, he is like "people who are in the middle of the beasts, they are not willing to participate in their crimes, but they can't resist all people's atrocities." ("Ideal States" [Republic] 496C).
This shows that the social body has a disease. Plato discovered its problem: how to do a disease-sick social body.
The problem itself contains a theory - the national and social organics. (This very suspiciousness and the origin of the theory of persistent affected are the east.)
The new and very personal variants of Plato of the social organicism are the proposed ratio between the city and the human soul: Society is the soul, the soul is a small country. In this way, he founded the national psychology theory and the political theory of the soul. The country is divided into a class, its structure can be characterized by the rule of the ruler and its assistant (or auxiliary) and the unstable balance between the class and the unstable balance between the class and slavery between the ruling. Similarly, the structure of the soul is characterized by the unstable balance between its high features, reason and will, and its lower function, the instability and desires. (Marx and Freud [Freud] are unconscious Platoists, noticed that this is very interesting. They are also anti-Platoists, they accept Plato's pattern and reverse it, Marx asked workers. Liberation, Freud requires the liberation of instinct or desires.
His problem stimulated him for almost extraordinary thinking. He not only developed a diagnosis and therapy, but (especially in his third period), he has developed his diagnosis and the knowledge based on the entire cosmology and a kind of knowledge according to his therapy.
His social diagnosis is very deep. He is not satisfied in condemning the democracy, and he seems that democracy is symptom rather than the disease itself. Because the disease is a social revolution - conquering the society, people have known their status, and everyone is happy, and everyone is happy. The society is in the process of degradation: degradation is evil, stability is sacred. Plato saw various phases of political degradation in the history of Greek city countries. They begin to the golden age of the hereditary king - the most outstanding person, the smarter's personal rule - and organic division of labor: the most smarter rule, bravely help him maintain order and defend the country, people's labor (engage in a variety of different Career). From here we ruling (or honored polish [timarchy]), the best of the best minority, reaching the democratic organs of most people. In "Ideal States", it shows that democracy is very easy to lead to the final decline: leading to the rule of the cruel incitement of the owner of the city. What is the cause of political degradation? According to the main work of Plato's second period "Ideal States", it is a racial degradation of the ruling class to destroy its health and its rule. According to the main work of his third period, the main reason for social changes is the cultural conflict. It is industrial development (such as the silver deposits of Athens), trade, with port and fleet, and establish colonies inevitable Accompanying All of this shows amazing insight, such as population stress is one of the main reasons for turmoil society. Plato links population growth or amount of race degradation or quality, which seems to be inevitable: his views about most people and the view of most people may hin him this point ("legal articles" 710D, 740D-741A, 838E). The sociological diagnosis of Plato will talk about it.
Plato's therapy - His Political Program - in line with his diagnosis: prevent all social changes! (As long as it may) return to the parent country! Strengthen the stability and strength of the ruling class, it is consistent, its rule! Because Plato system elapsed the diagnosis of the following diagnosis - Sociological Revolutionary Law: "The political change has no exception due to the ruling class itself, because there is a split in this class," or because of its rule will be weakened, or because it Be defeated in the war ("Ideally" 545D, 465B). Therefore, the appropriate education of the ruling class has become the main tool for politics; the degradation of the ruling class must be prevented by precise community; it must be used to strengthen the ruling class (limited to the ruling class), which contains women and children Public; no one will know that their true parents, everyone must regard all the members of the class old generation as their parents. (This surprising communism is the only point in the Plato program. It considers too much to give up in "legal", even if it is still claimed to be the best social form in the concept.) He is " The legal articles say that cultural conflicts must be prevented, so this city must not have port and fleets, citizens can not have travel tools: currency must be a loop ("Legal article 742A-C), although the government will It has the wealth of "general Greek currency". Religion and rituals should be developed as an important tool for preventing changes, and any variations are not tolerant. (This point indicates that religion is the concept of opium's opium, and this view is more eye-catching because of any organization that is similar to church in Greece.)
In his third period (especially in "legal articles"), Plato no longer uses Socrate as his main conversant: he seems to be aware of his teachings from Socrates. Plato further develops his mid-term political concepts and gives them (especially in the "political home" "Statemsan" and "Timai Europe" [Timaeus] in the context: racial degradation and political corruption The reason is that we are living in such a world period, the world is far from its sacred origin; each change makes it more like its prototype, which is the sacred form or philosophy created by its image. In this third period, Plato further developed his knowledge. In his first period, it is an optimistic theory that makes people's learning possible ("Manno" 81B-D). In his second and third periods, only highly trained philosophers can get real knowledge - the knowledge of sacred form or idea.
old age. It is very difficult to link the second and third time of Plato and his old age. According to legend, his most important event in his later years is his trip (once in Egypt, three times to Suda Ancient), establish a school, academic park (and Plato) to participate in the politics of Solana: His friend Dior [Dio] supports the invading Sudu, and overthrow Dionisio Charters [Dionysian Dynasty]. Dior is a member of the Academy of Academy Carrips [Callipus] murder, Carrips is murdered by the Pythagus "Leptines". (At least nine students of Platter, made yourself a city or another city of the owner.) The traces of travel in Plato can identify the traces of travel, such as the mention of Egyptian customs, and some other events. Traces, but most of these explanations are very interesting, but it is quite controversial.
The impact of Plato's work (regardless of good or bad) is inevitable. It can be said that Western thought is not Plato's philosophy of Beti, but rarely is nonsense.
(Selected from "Liberation through knowledge")
- Teacher said: "Don't take the road, I have failed" master said: "I will try to take the way, I haven't gone" ※ Source: · Wuhan Baiyun Yun Yun Yun Yun Yun Yunhuang Yun Yun Huanghe Station BBS.Whnet.edu.cn · [From: 222.20.40.136]
............................................................................................. "
Sender: bbcallen (not on the sand), the letter area: CS Title: The most enrich - Aristotle Send Station: Wuhan Baiyun Huanghe Station (December 06, 2004 15:24 : 09 Monday), station letters
The most blusted people - Aristotle
In the first three o'clock of the "Spirit of the Academy", Aristotle was born in the Greek immigration area of Starkir, Greece, Aristotle, which is a colony of Greece, with the rise of Macedonia. adjacent. His father is the court's hospital doctor in Phili II. From his family situation, he belongs to the middle class in the bourgeoisie of the slave. He moved to Athens in three or seven in the first month of BC. He has learned medicine and has been studying in Athens Praitu College many years and became a positive participant in Plato College.
From the age of 18 to 38 - I was a very important stage for Aristotle in Athens and Plato, I was a very important stage for Aristotle. The study and life in this period had decisive. influences. Socrates is the teacher of Plato, Aristotle is also taught in Plato, and these three generations of teachers are famous in the history of philosophy. In the Platter School in Athens, Aristotle is very good, Plato said he is the spirit of "Academy". But Aristotle is not a person who only worships authority, in the academic only Idoro, and there is no idea. He is different from the pijacked teacher, and he works hard to collect various book information, diligently drilled, and even established a library. There is a record that Plato has satirized him is a nerd. During the college, Aristotle had a difference with the teacher in his mind. He has said that the wisdom will die with the Archa. When Plato has been in his later years, the differences between their teachers and students are bigger, often quarrels. Three or seven years ago, Plato died, Aristotle continued to stay in Athens for two years. Since then, he began to travel all over the place. In the first three or four years of BC, he was hired by the King of Macedonia, served as a teacher who was priest Alexander. At that time, Alexander was a thirty-three years old, Aristotle forty-two years old. Three or eight years ago, King Philip II, King Macedon, defeated the anti-Macedonian coalition of Athens, Chibes and other countries, from which we dominate Greece. In the second year, Phili held a full Greek meeting, the meeting agreed that Greek states ceased the war, establish a permanent league, and was held by Macedonia. At the meeting, Phili announced that he would command the Greek Bang Dianjun, expedition Persian. At this point, Macedonia actually mastered the general power of Greece, and the Greek states have been named in the name of Macedonia.
Phili was born in three or three six years ago. His son, only 20-year-old Alexander is king. Three four years ago BC, Alexander led the coalition of the Macedonian army and the Greek. In less than ten years, he hits the Million of the Persian army, followed by the ancient Persi Empire. An unprecedented huge Alexander Empire - its territory wests from Greece, east to the Indian river, South Pack, Northern Central Asia - established. Three or two or three bodies, Alexander disease. This high-end empire established with force conquered, through the mixed war, split into several independent kingdoms.
Just in the turmoil of this time, Aristotle returned to Athens, where he lived in 20 years, that is, from Alexander's previous year to Alexander's death. During this time, although Macedonia controlled Athens in military and politics, the potential of anti-Macedonia was still large. Aristotle came to Athens and may have a political mission that convinced Athens to obey Macedonia. Aristotle has received a lot of preferential treatment in Athens, in addition to political dominant status, he also received a lot of money, materials and land funded by Alexander and Macedonia bureaucrats at all levels. He founded the Lukanguo, accounted for the vast sports grounds and garden areas near Apollo Lu. In the school, there was a library and implantation garden at the time. He created his own school here. The teachers and students of this school are used to discussing problems while walking on the garden. It is known as "Happy School". It is said that Alexander is a research fee provided by his teacher, which is the eight hundred re-Takland (60 pounds per Talan heterogeneous). Alexander also provided a lot of manpower for his teachers. He ordered him to collect animal plant specimens and other information for Aristotle.
In fact, Aristotle is the best work, it can do it. For example, he has made an outlined and analyzed a 158th political system. This work needs a large number of collection and finishing work involved. If there is no assistant assistant, it is impossible to finish. When the news of Alexander's death came to Athens, there was a frenzy of the anti-Macedonian frenzy. Athens attacked Aristotle, and sentenced him to not convinced the sin. In that year, Socrates were sentenced to death because of disrespects. . But Aristotle eventually escaped Athens, the second year, he died, he was half-year old. Most blindly
Aristotle first is a great philosopher. Although he is a Berram student, but abandon his professional idea. Plato believes that the idea is the prototype of the real thing, it does not depend on the real thing and exists independently. Aristotle believes that the physical itself contains the essence. Plato asserts that it is impossible to be the source of true knowledge. Aristotle believes that knowledge originated. These ideas have already included some materialism factors. As Aristotle and Plato believe that rational programs and purpose are the guiding principle of all natural processes. But Aristotle is more rich in causality than Bora, because he accepted some views on this issue during some ancient Greek. He pointed out that due to the main four, the first is the main material of the material, that is, the main substance of the object. The second is the designed pattern and shape that the main substance is given. The third is the mechanism and role provided by the dynamic, that is, to achieve such design. The fourth is the purpose of the purpose, that is, the purpose of designing objects. For example, the pottery of the pottery is the pottery to provide its quality, while the design style of the pottery is due, the pottery wheel and hands are dynamic, and the use of the pottery is the purpose of the purpose. . Aristotle himself is the fact that the object of the object is due to the fact that he believes that the form is within all natural objects and roles. These forms have begun, but the object or creature has developed, and these forms are revealed. Finally, the object or organism reaches the completion stage, its finished product is used to achieve the purpose of the original design, that is, the purpose of service. He also believes that in terms of specific things, there is no non-shaped form, and there is no intangible material, the binding process of quality materials and forms, which is the movement of the potential to reality. This theory shows the idea of spontaneous dialectics.
Aristotle divided science:
(1) Theoretical science (mathematics, natural science and later known as the first philosophy of the school);
(2) Practical science (ethics, political science, economics, strategic and modified)
(3) The science created, that is, poetics.
Aristotle believes that analyzing or logic is a scientific tool. He is the founder of formal logic, and he strives to link his mind and existence, and clarify the logic in accordance with objective practical. Aristotle applied his discovery to scientific theory. As an example, he chose mathematics, especially geometry, because the geometry has given reasonable early test stages from Thales to the empirical rules of land measurement, and transitions to the later stage of comparative interpretation. However, the three-way arguments of logic are indeed useless to experimental science. Because the goal pursued by experimental science is to discover, not from recognized premise, it has been proof. From the elements, it is no longer divided into a simpler object, and a correct known element table has not been proposed in 1890, but in 1920, the use of this premise will exclude all radioactive elements. The premise has changed since the meaning of "element" has changed. However, this fact cannot prove that three paragraphs are useless, and it is not possible to confirm that modern physics is wrong. Fortunately, modern experiments are no longer spent on logical form, but the scientific community in Greece and the middle ancient times is under the authority of Aristotle, using interpretation law to make many wrong authority to say absolute Correct, and use a spoofing logical form for many errors. In terms of astronomy, he believes that the sky is a substance entity. It is a spherical shape. It is the center of the universe; the earth and the celestial body consist of different substances, the substance on the earth is composed of four elements of water and gas. The fifth element is "so too". In terms of physics, he opposes atomism and does not recognize that there is a vacuum; he also believes that the object is only moved under external force, the external force stops, and the exercise will stop. In terms of biological, he classified more than 50 different plants, at least 50 kinds of animals have been taken out, pointing out that whales are fetal, and the development of chick embryos is also investigated. Alexander Great often gives him back to various animal and plant specimens on the way. In terms of education, he believes that rational development is the ultimate goal of education and advocates that the state should conduct public education for the slave master. Make their bodies, virtue and wisdom to develop harmoniously. Aristotle has also proposed a number of mathematics and physics, such as limits, infinity, and strength synthesis.
Major works
Aristotle's logic works later made a book by his comment, named "Toolship". They inherited Aristotle's views that logic was neither a theoretical knowledge, and they were not practical knowledge, just tools. "Tools" mainly discusses the deduction method, laying the foundation for the form of form, and has a profound impact on this scientific development.
Another copy of Aristotle's "physics" discusses natural philosophy, the principles, substances and forms, sports, time and space. He believes that an object is moving, and there is a need to have a constant role.
Aristotle began to discuss substances and destroyed things in the book "On the Day", and then discussed the occurrence and destruction. In this process of occurrence and destruction, the principles of mutual pertide are cold and hot, wet and dry two-two interactions, resulting in four elements of fire soil. In addition to the elements on these ground, he added to Ethernet. Too much round movement and forms a perfect and immortal celestial body. "Meteorology" discusses the area between heaven, namely the planet, comet and meteor; there are some primary schools about visual, color vision and rainbow. Some original chemical concepts are described in the fourth volume. In this point of view, Aristotle is not as satisfactory as his biological work, but this work has a great impact in the later period of the medieval.
Other important works in Aristotle are: "Metaphysics", "Ethics", "Political Science" and "Analysis Previous Articles and Post". These works have a great impact on the development of later philosophy and science.
Conclude
Aristotle shows a turning point of Greek science. Before he used, scientists and philosophers strive to propose a complete world system to explain natural phenomena. He is the last person who proposes a full world system. After him, many scientists have given up attempts to make a complete system, transfer to the study specific problem. Aristotle concentrated in ancient knowledge. In his hundreds of years after he died, no one had systematic inspection and comprehensive mastery of knowledge. His work is an ancient encyclopedia. Engels said he is "the most blog". - Teacher said: "Don't take the road, I have failed" master said: "I will try to take the way, I haven't gone" ※ Source: · Wuhan Baiyun Yun Yun Yun Yun Yun Yunhuang Yun Yun Huanghe Station BBS.Whnet.edu.cn · [From: 222.20.40.136]
