Quantum Physics History (Z)

If you want to select the greatest years in the history of physics development, then there are two periods to be selected: 17th century and early 20th centuries. The former is a sign based on the publication of Newton's "Natural Philosophy", which announced the formal creation of modern classic physics; the latter brought us relativism and quantum theory, and mostly overthrew and rebuilt the entire physics system. . Different, today we talk about Newton's era, the heart is more than the nostalgic and memorial to the glory year; while the relativity and quantum theory still deeply impact and plague us so far, just like Two green olives, the longer chew, but more taste is endless. I am here to tell you about the story of quantum. This story is more like a legend, starting with an opacomy clue, the track path is inserted, gradually falling in the field, and the eye. I have no hair, suddenly the peak is turning, the world is open, such as the river, the river, and the Ocean. However, it is also a view of the scenery, but I'm going to fall in the blink of an eye. I am not worthy of the way in the depths of Baiyun ... The history of quantum mechanics is one of the most exciting chances of physics. We will see that the physics building crashed under the wind of the wind. But in the flame of the raging, it has been baptized and reborn. We will see the most revolutionary trendy sweeping land, bringing a horrified electric flash thunder, but also showing a shocking beauty. We will see how science walks hard in the thorns and swamps, but it has firmly determined the beliefs of victory. Quantum theory is a complex and difficult puzzle. She is like a mysterious girl, we met with her every day, but never guess her inner world. Today, our modern civilization, from computers, television, mobile phone to nuclear energy, aerospace, biotechnology, which are not dependent on quantum theory. But what is the quantum theory brings us? This problem is still difficult to answer. In the natural philosophy, the quantum is brought to our unprecedented impact and vibration, and even change the basic idea of ​​the entire physical world. Its concept is such a revolution, and even the least conservative scientists are deeply afraid of it in subconscious. The prosperity of modern civilization is a rational victory, and quantum theory is undoubtedly one of the highest achievements of rationality. However, it is too powerful, so that in history, our ration is buried in victory, and the seeds that can destroy its own. It is necessary to say: Niels Bohr in the yield of quantum theory: "If you don't feel confused for the quantum, then he is not understanding the quantity." Focus, the quantum is founded so far exceeded 100 In the year, some of its basic thinking is still not known for ordinary public. So, let us return to the great era again, review the epicity and magnificent revolution, and then go between the stormy waves again, and enjoy the feeling of dizziness. Our speedboat is going to start. When you feel fear or shock, please be sure to hurry up. But everyone should always remember that the greatest genius in the history of physics also gone through the same route, and their feelings, and we are exactly the same.

The first chapter of the golden age is a story from 1887 in Germany. Carlsruhe, located in the Rhine, is a beautiful city, standing in its city, standing in the famous 18th century palace. The lush forest and warm climate also make this small town a tourist name of Europe. However, these pleasant scenes seem to have the attention of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz: Now he is concentrating on his instrument in a laboratory at the University of Karlsruhe. At that time, Hertz just 30 years old, may not think that he will become a famous figure in the history of Hermann Von Helmholtz, will not think of him and Carl? Benz (Carl Benz is the same as the pride of this small city. Now his mind, just fully pour it on his set of devices. Hertz's device seems to be very simple today: its main part is an electric spark generator, there are two very close small copper balls as a capacitor. Hertz whole god concentrates on these two opposing copper balls, then closing the circuit switch. Suddenly, the magic of electricity begins in this simple system: the invisible current passes through the induction coil in the device and start charging the copper ball capacitance. Hertz glanced at his device, imagined in the heart, constantly rising, two voltages of capacitors. It has been in the field of electrical fields. Herz has full confidence in his knowledge. He knows that with the rise of the voltage, the air between the two small balls will be broken, and the whole system will Form a high-frequency oscillation circuit (LC loop), but he is nothing to observe now. Sure enough, after a while, with a subtle "", a beautiful blue electric flower burst between two copper balls, the entire system formed a complete circuit, the small current beam in the air. Do not stop twisting, bloom faint fluorescence. Hertz is more nervous, he stared at the skewers, as well as the air next to the electric spark, and the heart imagined another picture. He is not to see how this device produces a spark short circuit. The purpose of his experiment is to try the existence of the virtual "electromagnetic wave". What kind of thing is it, it can't see it, I can't touch it. I haven't seen anyone at that time, and I have verified it. However, Hertz is firmly believed because it is a prophecy of Maxwell theory. Maxwell theory ... Oh, it is simply like a miracle in mathematics! It seems to be a poem under the hand of God. This kind of theory is hard to imagine it is wrong. Hertz sucked a breath and smiled: no matter how impeccable theory, it still has to verify it through experiments. He stood there, and he was in a few times in his heart, and finally determined his own experiment. The electromagnetic wave propagating. Hertz turned, on the other side of the laboratory, put a open copper ring, and each of the open copper balls were also in the opening. That is the receiver of electromagnetic waves. If Maxwell's electromagnetic wave exists, then it will travel through this room to the other end, in the receiver, in the receiver, thereby also exciting an electric spark at the opening of the receiver Come. The laboratory quietly quietly, Herz stood there, as if his eyes have seen the intangible electromagnetic wave in space.

The copper ring receiver suddenly looks a little strange. Hertz is hard to call it. He makes his nose to the front of the copper ring, clearly seeing that there seems to be weak sparks between the two copper balls. Flash. Herz quickly ran to the window, pulling all the curtains, now more clear: Light blue electric flows are constantly blooming in the gap of the copper ring, but the entire copper ring is an isolated system, neither connecting the battery There is no energy source. Hertz gazed for a long time, in his eyes, the blue sparks appeared so beautiful. Finally, he blinded his eyes, straight from the waist: Now no longer doubt, the electromagnetic wave is really real in the space, it is exactly the electric fire on the receiver. He won, successfully solved this 8 years ago, a problem of reward by the Berlin Pushs Academy of Sciences; at the same time, Maxwell's theory was also victorious, and a new peak of physics - electromagnetic theory was finally established. The great Fala (Michael Faraday) made a foundation, great Maxwell built its main body, and today, he - great Hertz - sealed the building. Hertz carefully moves the receiver to a different position, the performance of electromagnetic waves and the theoretical prediction of the uncomfortable. According to the experimental data, Hz draws the wavelength of electromagnetic waves, multiplying it by the oscillation frequency of the circuit, can calculate the forward speed of the electromagnetic wave. This value is exactly equal to 300,000 km / sec, which is light speed. The Maxwell's amazing prophecy has been confirmed: the original electromagnetic wave is unsticormous, and the light we usually see is a kind of electromagnetic wave, but its frequency is limited to a certain range, and can see it for us. In any of what a sense, this is a great discovery. The ancient optical performance can finally be completely included in the emerging electromagnetic, and the "one of the electromagnetic waves" has also finally been an unruly episode for the problem of the long-standing light nature (we immediately Just look at this wonderful wonderful battle). The reflection, diffraction and interference experiments of electromagnetic waves are quickly made, and these experiments further confirm the consistency of electromagnetic waves and optical waves, which is undoubtedly a huge achievement of electromagnetic theory. The name of Hertz finally be flashing in the famous Hall of Science, but as a pure serious scientist, Hertz did not think of his huge business meaning in his discovery. In the laboratory of the University of Carlsruhe, he thinks only how it can be more close to the ultimate mystery of nature. It is not expected to bring his experiment. Hertz Elderly, less than 37 years old, left this world. However, in that year, a 20-year-old Italian youth on Lombardy vacation reads his paper on electromagnetic waves; two years later, this youth has conducted a radio communication performance in public, and his company was established. And successfully got a patent certificate. In 1901, in 1901, the 7th year of Hertz, the wireless telegram can be passed through the Atlantic, and real-time communication in the two places. This young man from Italy is Guge Relielmo Marconi, while Russian Pobov (Aleksandr Popov) has also done the same contribution in the field of wireless communications. They set off a revolutionary storm that brought the whole human beings into a brand new "information era". I don't know if I know if I know it behind? But still thinking that Herz will only laugh on this. He is the pure scientist, the pursuit of truth as the greatest value of life.

I am afraid that even if he thinks of the business prospect of electromagnetic waves, will it take it to practice it? Maybe, walking distance between beautiful forests and lakes, thinking about the natural mystery of nature, in the campus of autumn leaves, and students discuss academic issues, this is his real life. Today, his name has become the unit of the physical quantity of the frequency. It is constantly filed by everyone, but maybe he will still disturb his peace?

Chapter 2 III: In 1887, Hertz's experiment confirmed the presence of electromagnetic waves, and it was also confirmed that the light was actually an electromagnetic wave, both of which had a common wave character. This seems to be an uncharacted number of the nature of the light. To put it here, our story should go back, cross time and space to review this war about light. This may be the longest-lasting, the most fierce in the history of physics. It runs almost through the development of the entire modern physics, and the branding of never abroad is burned in history. Light, is something that everyone has seen ("seeing the most" is really a little nice here). Since ancient times, it is considered to be one of the most primitive things of this universe. In ancient myth, it is often "a bright light" to open chaos and darkness, so the world has started to run. In people's minds, they will always represent life, vitality and hope. In the Bible, God wants to create the world, first of all, it is light, it can be seen that it is a unique position in this universe. However, what is the light? Or is it a "thing"? People in ancient times seem to be light as a real thing, shining and dark, in their view, only a environment. Only by ancient Greece, scientists began to pay attention to the problem of light. There is a matter of affirmation: we can see things, that is because of the results of light. People have guess, and the light is a thing from our eyes. When it reaches a sample, this thing is "see" we "see". For example, EmpedoCles believes that the world consists of water, fire, gas, and soil four elements, and human eyes are Aphrodite, fire, as fire elements ( It is also light. In ancient times, when I was still light, when I was sprayed into the object from the human eye, we were able to see things. But obvious, this explanation is not enough. It can illustrate why we can see it, and it is not possible to close your eyes; but it can't explain why it is in a dark place. We can't see something even if we are in your eyes. In order to solve this difficult, people introduce more complex hypothesis. For example, there are three different lights, from the eyes, the objects and light sources, and the visual is the result of the integrated effects of the three. This assumption is undoubtedly too complicated. In the Roman era, the great scholar Luke Ruochuan is proposed in its immortal book "physical theory", and the light is directly reached from the light source, but his view is never acceptable. The correct understanding of the light imaging is until about 1000 AD 1000. It is presented by a Persian scientist Al-haytham: It turns out that we can see objects, but because light is reflected from the object to our eyes. result. He proposed a lot of evidence to prove this, the most powerful thing is the experiment of small hole imaging. When we saw that the light became an inverted image after the small hole, we could not doubt the correctness of this statement. . Some of the nature of light, people have also begun to study. Based on light, it is assumed to take a straight line, and Euclid has studied the reflection problem of light in "Catoptrica" ​​book. PTOLEMY, JOHANNES Kepler, is a refraction of light, and the Netherlands physiologist Snell (W. Snell) is based on their work on 1621. Out of the refractive law of light.

Finally, the nature of the light is finally attributed to a simple rule of Pierre de Fermat, known as the "King of Amateur Mathematics", that is, "Light is always the shortest route". Optics finally established as a physical discipline. However, when people have already pointed out, there is still one of the most basic issues, that is: "Is Light in essence? What does this problem do not seem to be so? It's hard to answer, but people will never think that for this exploration actually, this exploration process, the impact on physics will be so far-reaching and significant, its meaning exceeds anyone at the time. Imagine. People in the ancient Greek era always tend to see light as a very small particle stream, and in other words, the light is composed of a very small "light atom" of a particle. On the one hand, this view is very compliant that the epidemic elements are said, and in additional to the people are not too much in the form of other substances except particles. This kind of theory, we call it "particles". The particles say that it seems to be very reasonable from intuitive, first of all, it can explain well why light is always moving along the straight line, why is it strict and classically reflected, or even refractive phenomenon can also be streamed in different media The speed change is explained. But the particles also have some obvious difficulties:, for example, it is difficult to say why both beams are collided with each other, people can't learn, where is these small light particles hidden before the lights The quantity of them can be unlimited, and so on. When the dark medieval past, people have a further understanding of the world. The wave of fluctuations is deeply understood and studied, and the sound is a fluctuating understanding and gradually accepting people. People have begun to doubt: Since the sound is a wave, why is it not able to wave? At the beginning of the seventeenth century, DES Cartes took the lead in the first "folding nature" of the three appendices of the Methodology: light is a pressure, spread in the media. Soon, the Italian Mathematics professor Grimaldi made an experiment. He allowed a bunch of light to pass two small holes, followed by the screen in the dark room, found a kind of projection Small dark striped image. Grima immediately remembered the diffraction of water waves (this everyone should have seen on the illustration of the physics of middle school), so it is proposed: Light may be a wave of water wave, this is the earliest light wave. Wave said that light is not a matter of material particles, but a wave produced due to vibration of the medium. We imagine the water wave, it is not a practical transmission, but the result of vibration along the water surface along the way. Light fluctuations are easy to explain the bright and dark stripes in the projection, and it is easy to explain the beams to each other without interference. Regarding the problem of linear transmission and reflection, people soon realize that the wavelength of light is very short, in most cases, the behavior of light is the same as the classical particles. The diffraction experiment has proved this. But fluctuations say that there is a basic problem, that is, any fluctuations need to have a medium to pass, such as sound, can't spread in vacuo. Otherwise, it doesn't seem to be able to move anywhere without any media. To give a simple example, Stars can pass almost empty space to the earth, which is obviously very disadvantageous to fluctuations. But the fluctuations have cleverly get rid of this problem: it assumes a medium that can't see the medium to achieve light, this medium has a very loud and impressive name called "ATher". Just in such a wonderful atmosphere, the fluctuations of light were mounted on the historical stage.

We will soon see that this new force seems to be the former world of particles, and it is destined to have a long-term war with the latter for several centuries. Their two destiny have always been entangled together. If there is no other party, no one can say that he is still complete. Later, they were simply existed for opponents. This wonderful play from the beginning, after two ups, reaching dazzling climax. The last wonderful ending makes us more believe that their dialogue is almost a kind of condensation and unsurable fate. In the middle of the 17th century, it was the last darkness before the arrival of scientific dawn. No one would predict that these two small sparks will lead to a raging fire. ******** After meals, gossip: Tell, "ATher". As we saw above, the Extraction is presented as a hypothetical assumption. But the origin of "Ether" was as early as ancient Greece: Aristotle expressed his understanding of the celestial body in the book "On the Day". He believes that the Sun and Moonstock is run around the earth, but its composition is different and the four major elements on the ground. The things in the sky should be perfect, they can only consist of a more pure element, which is the so-called "fifth element" of Aristotle - Ethernet (αηηρ) in Greek. Since this concept is borrowed to science, the status of the Too too in history can be said to be quite subtle, on the one hand, it has played such an important role, so as is the basis of the entire physics; on the other hand, It is no longer a ridden when it is glory. Although it is not willing to struggle three, change his head, give yourself a new meaning, but still can't escape the fate of the final abandoned, and even have almost a special word of pseudo science. But in any case, the concept of Ethernet is still its status in the history of science. It has represented the optical media and the absolute reference department, although it has already quits the stage, but until today, we can still evoke our mid to the golden years. It is like a yellow photo, which records a raclar past. Today, Ether is used as another concept to name a network protocol (Ethernet), is it a few days when I see this word? True to Too much.

The third chapter, three last time, what is the problem of light, there are two possible hypothetical assumptions in the middle of the seventeenth century: the particles say and fluctuate. However, at the beginning, the armed armed for both sides was very weak. The particles say that there is a long history, but the power in it is very limited. Light linearly problems and reflection refraction problems have been its traditional territory, but the waves have developed their own theory after developing their own theory, and they are in autumn in autumn in these two battlefields. As a emerging theory, Grima's light diffraction experiment is the biggest magic weapon of it, but it dragged a heavy burden, it is the hypothesis, this is imagined with the medium, will be It has become a cumbersome of the volatile army for a long time. There is no armed conflict in the beginning of the two power. Where they are still in a heart, they still stand up to everyone to review. The fire caused by the "First Microwave War" broke out was the Yoshi Ear (Robert Boyle. He believes that the various colors we have seen are actually the properties of the object itself, but the effects of light. This argument itself does not have something to do with particle fluctuations, but it has caused a fierce debate against color properties. In Grima's eyes, the color is different because of the difference between the wave frequency. His experiment has caused interest in Robert Hooke. Hu Ke was originally an experimental assistant of the Yubi, which was a member of the Royal Society of the United Kingdom and also served as an experimental administrator. He repeated Grima's work and carefully observed the color of the light in soap bubble and the glory generated by the light through the thin cloud. According to his judgment, the light must be a fast pulse, so he clearly supports fluctuations in the "Micrographia" book published in 1665. "Microscopy" This book quickly won the world's academic reputation for Hak, and fluctuated that because of this general joining, it seems to have a wind. However, I don't know if it is accidental, or it is self-organized, and there seems to have changed the development of the entire battle. In 1672, a young man called Aisak. Newton submitted a paper to the Royal Society Commission, named "New Theory on Light and Color". Newton was only 30 years old, just as a member of the Royal Society. This is the first formal scientific papers published by Newton. The content is about the dispersion experiment of the light he did, which is also one of the most famous experiments made by Newton. The experimental scene was rendered in some scientific books. Impressive: Summer in the summer, Newton wore a heavy wig in a hut. The four-sided window is all blocked, and the room is bored and hot, and a paint is dark. There is only one bunch of light from a specially leaving small hole. Newton didn't care about the rain, and the whole gods walked in the house and inserted a triple prism in his hand from time to time. Whenever the three prism is inserted, the original bunch of white is gone, and on the wall in the house, a long color broadband is mapped: the color is from red until purple. Buffton With this experiment, the white light is mixed by the seven color light. However, in this paper, Newton puts the composite and decomposition of light into different color particles mixed and separated. Hu Kehe Yisheng is a member of the commelice at the time, and they have intensely criticized this view. Huke claims that the correct part of Newton's paper (that is, the color of color) is to steal his 1665 thought, and Newton "original" particles are not worth mentioning. Newton is anger, withdrawing the paper immediately, and the gay claims no longer publish any research results. In fact, Newton's view is still swaying between particles and fluctuations, and does not have completely denied fluctuations.

In 1665, Hu Ke delivered his point of view, Newton has just graduated from the Jianqiao Sanyi College, perhaps in front of the apple tree, thinking about his extravagration problem. But after this, Newton started to support the particles in the ground. This is because of revenge psychology, or because of the spirit of science, it has not been known today, and it has its factors in both ways. However, Newton's character is known to be atmospheric and kg, which will also be seen in the controversy in the future and Leibniz on the invention. However, on the one hand, because of Hook's famous gas, on the other hand, because Newton's attention is more transferred to kinematics and mechanics, Newton temporarily does not officially fully demonstrate the particle saying (just in several papers. Gram. At this time, the wave of fluctuations began their modernization - with theory to equip themselves. The Dutch Physicist Huygens became the maincomer of fluctuations. Huygens has a very high genius in mathematics theory. He inherited Hook's thoughts. It is a longitudinal wave that is spread in the Emperor, and introduces the concept of "wavefront", successfully proof and derived. Reflection and refractivement law of light. Although his volatility theory is still very rough, the success of the achievements is outstanding. At that time, as optical research continued in depth, the new battlefield was constantly opened: In 1665, Newton found that if the light was allowed to illuminate on the optical flat glass plate through a large curvature lens, it would see the appearance of the lens and glass plate contact. A set of colored concentric loops, which is the famous "Newton ring" (friends who are interested in images and photography must know). By 1669, Denmark's Barcelinus was found when light was birefringed when it passed the stone crystal. Huygens applies his theory to these new discovery, and finding that his fluctuating army can easily occupy these new positions, only need small restructuring (such as the concept of elliptical waves). In 1690, Hunguith's book "Traite de la lumiere" is published, and the fluctuations have arrived at this stage to a prosperous vertex. Unfortunately, the temporary field of fluctuations seems to be destined to become a foam that is blooming. Because in their opponent, standing with a large number of rays: Mr. Aisac? Newton (and immediately becomes a jazz). The science giant - no matter what reason why he is out - I have decided to give the wars to say that the waves say that they are unrestricted. In order to avoid the dispute between and Hulan, it will cause unnecessary misunderstandings, Newton has also carefully arranged in tactics. Until the second year after Hulan passed the world, it was 1704 years, Newton published his Huanghuang Jialao "Optics". In this epoch-in-one work, Newton explained the color laminated and dispersion of light, and explained the phenomenon found in the discovery of the film light transmitted, Newton, and diffraction experiments from the perspective of the particles. He refute the theory of fluctuations, questioning why if light is like a sound wave, why can't go around the obstacle. He also studied the birefringence phenomenon and proposed a number of problems that cannot be explained using fluctuating theory. And the basic difficulties of particles, Newton is solved with his genius. He absorbed many things from the volatility opponent, such as some useful concepts such as vibration, cycle, etc., etc., and to answer the problem of Newton Ring. On the other hand, Newton said the particles and his mechanical system together, so that this theoretical suddenly presents unparalleled power. This is completely crackdown in the dismissal. The Newton in that time was no longer the youth that can be questioned at the reviewer. At that time, Newton, which was already published "Mathematical Principles", which is already invented by Newton.

At that time, he was already a member of the Congress, the president of the Royal Society, has become a human style in history. All over the world, people have a melting film for his mechanical system, as if I have seen God's revelation. And fluctuations said that the group did not have the first (Huygens died in 1695), which lost the leader's army has not yet built a few sturdy fortress in the territory, and has been devastated. They were shocked, and they did not defend all the positions almost overnight. This aspect is because there is a deficiency of fluctuating your own defense. It is still not perfect. On the other hand, it is also because the strength of the opponent is too strong: Newton as the Thai, his talents and authority are not questioned. of. The first microwave war ended in this way of volatility, the result of the war is that the particles say that the mainstream of the physical world is firm. The fluctuations are forced to transfer to the ground, and they can't lift their heads for a whole century. However, it still has not been eliminated, and the groundbreaking work made by Huygens et al. Made it still have tenacious vitality and silently launched the day to wait for the east. ********* After the meal gossip: Husk and Newton Husk and Newton are also a pair of joy in history. Both people have great contributions in mechanics, optical, instruments, etc. Both people inspired each other, but there is a lot of arguments. In addition to the debate about the light, there is a dispute between them, that is, the rules of the spirituality of the anti-ratio of the laws that are discovered. Hook spent a lot of heart blood in mechanics and planets. He has studied Copler's law in 1964, proposes the viewpoint of bending into an ellipse of planetary orbit due to gravity. In 1674, he proposed the theory of planet motion based on the revised inertial principle. In 1679, he was writing to Newton's letter, proposing the degree of gravitational size and distance, but said more blurred, but did not quantify (the original: ... My supposition is that the attraction always is in a DUPLICATE ProPortion to the distance from the center reciprocal. After the publication of Newton's "principle", Hulan demanded that his priority to this law, but Newton's final answer was deleted from "principle" from "principle". It should be said that Hook is also a great scientist. He helped the Yisheng Erotypes to discover the Yoshihe ridiculous, with its own microscope to discover the cells of the plant, and his work in geology (especially the observation of fossil) This discipline is 30 years, and the instrument invented and manufactured, such as a microscope, air cylinder, a wheel, and a rotary gas press, etc.) at the time. The elastic law he found is one of the most important laws of mechanics. In that era, he is secondary and optical as a great scientist second only to Newton, but it seems that he will always live in Newton's shadow. Today's Newton is full of the world, but today's middle school students only know Huke's name from Huke's law (elastic law), Huito has become cynical, and the line is full of pain. After he died, a portrait did not stay, it is said to be because he is "too ugly".

The fourth chapter, four last time, in the first confrontation of the particles and fluctuations, it was aware of the fluctuations in Newton's microparticles, and made a physically recognized status. In the blink of an eye, it has passed in the past century. The status of the Newtonian system is so lofty, and it is soaken that there is a feeling of dazzling. And the light he advocated is a particle concept. It is already so deep into the hearts, so that people have almost forgot the existence of its opponents. However, 1773 June 13th, a boy was born in a family in Milverton, called Thomas Young. This future rebel leader's growth history is a typical genius history. When he is two years old, you can read a variety of classics. At the age of 6, I started to learn Latin, and I have written an autobiography in Latin at the age of 14. I have been 16 years old. He has been able to say 10 languages ​​and learn from Newton's "Mathematical Principles" and the "chemical outline" of Ravata. When Yang is 19 years old, he is influenced by his uncle's uncle, decided to go to London to learn medicine. In the next day, he went to Edinburgh and the University of Göttingen, and finally returned to the Emanuel College of the Cambridge to end his studies. When he was still a student, Yang studied the structure of the human body and began to exposure to some basic problems in optical, and finally formed his light as the idea of ​​fluctuations. Yang's understanding is from the so-called "interference" phenomenon in fluctuations. We all know that ordinary substances are accumulated, and a drop of water plus a dropwater must be two drops of water, not to disappear together. But the fluctuations are different, a column of ordinary wave, it has a wave of peaks and waves of the water, if two columns meet, when they are in the peak, then the stacking wave will reach twice the peak, If you are in the trough, the superimposed result will be twice the deep valley. But, wait, if there is a wave of waves in its peak, another wave of waves on its valley? The answer is that they will cancel each other. If the two columns meet in this case (physically called "inverted phase"), then in their overlap, it will be like a mirror, neither peak, and there is no valley. It's like a person pulled you to the left. The other person used the same strength to pull you to the right, the result is that you will stand in place. Thomas Yang was in studying the idea of ​​fluctuations in the idea of ​​fluctuations. Why do you form a dark stripe? A thought gradually formed in Yang's mind: Is it not very simple to use wave? Bright place, that is because the two light is just "same phase", their peaks and troughs are enhanced, resulting in twice the bright effect (just like two people at the same side or right); and dark Those stripes must be that the two light is in "reverse phase", and their peak trough is relative, just offset each other (just like two people pulling you on both sides). This bold and imaginative insight makes Yang blown, and he immediately launched a series of experiments and published a paper report in 1801 and 1803. phenomenon. Even through his experimental data, the wavelength of the light should be between 1/36000 to 1/60000 inches. In 1807, Yang summarizes his "natural philosophical lectures", which comprehensively organized his optical work, and the first time to describe his famous four seas: the double sewing interference of light. Later history proved that this experiment can be used in the most classic top five experiments in physics history, and today, it has appeared in the textbooks of each middle school physics.

Yang's experimental means is extremely simple: put a candle in front of a small hole, which forms a point source (from a point of light). Now put a piece of paper behind the paper, the difference is that two parallel slits are opened on the second sheet of paper. The light emitted from the small hole is passed through two slits to the screen, and it will form a series of strokes, which is the interference stripes that everyone knows now. Yang's writings ignited the revolutionary fire, the "second microwave war" in physical history begins. After the wave of fluctuations took a hundred years of silence, it finally returned to the historical stage. However, it is not good at the days, in the middle of the world, the volatile soldiers are ragged, lack of backup, can only lead to it by the guerrilla warback. Yang's thesis has begun to be exhausted by the authorities' s laughter and irony, and the attack is "absurd" and "not logical". In the past 20 years, he actually no one. Yang is to refute to the papers, but they are nowhere to publish, but they have to print a brochure, but it is said to be "only sold" after the release. However, although the arrogant particles are still intoxicated in the glory of Newton's era, they don't put the rogue insurgents of the uprising in the eyes. But they quickly found that although these rebels were not very much, the costumes were not so neat, but their weapons were in the past. After receiving several heavy blows, the killing of this fluctuation cannon in the interference has finally alarm the entire particulate legion. The phenomenon evidence revealed by this simple and clever experiment is unable to refute. Whether it works hard, it is impossible to avoid the ruthless bombing of the opponent: it is difficult to explain how the two light stacks will cause the darkness. The reason why fluctuations is simple and straightforward: the distance between the two small holes is different from the distance on the screen. When this distance is an integer value of the wavelength, the two light waves are enhanced to each other and form a highlight. Conversely, when the distance difference is just caused by the phase difference of the half wavelength, the two colors are just offset to each other, causing dark points. The bright stripe distance and experimental value calculated from the theory are not bad. After the section is defeated, the particles finally find themselves unable to resist the opposition of the other party. So it adopted a strategy that was attacked. Many of the unfavorable experimental evidence of fluctuations is proposed to prove the contradiction between fluctuations. The most well-known thing is the polarization phenomenon found in 1809, this phenomenon and the known fluctuations have conflicted place. The two major opponents began to keep up, but they did not give up their confidence in winning. Yang said in the letter to Musus: "... Your experiment just proves that my theory is inadequate, but I have not proved that it is false." The decisive moment came in 1819. The final battle originated from a reward essay competition in the 1818 French Academy of Sciences. The topic of the competition is to determine the diffraction effect of the light using a precision experiment and the movement of the light through the object through the object. The competition jury consists of many well-known scientists, including J.B. Biot, Laplas (S.Poission), is a positive particle supporter. Organizing this competition is intended to explain light diffraction and exercise by the theory of particles to explain light to combat fluctuation theory. But the dramatic situation will appear. A unknown French young engineer - Augustin Fresnel, at the time he was 31 years old) submitted a papers to the organizing committee "the interaction of polarization light". In this paper, Fresnel uses a fluctuated point of view, but revolutionally believes that light is a horizontal wave (like water waves, the vibrator is a wave of relative propagation direction) rather than Hulk has always been considered as a longitudinal wave (like spring wave, vibrator to perform a wave of relative propagation direction).

From this concept, he explained a rigorous mathematical reasoning, explaining the diffraction of light and solved the polarization problem that has been plaguing fluctuations. His system is complete and lacking, so that members of the committee are deeply amazing. Poisson did not believe this conclusion, a careful review of it, and the results showed a shot in the middle of the shadow when the theory is applied to disk diffraction. This seems very ridiculous in Poisson, how can there be a bright spot in the middle of the shadow? This almost makes Fresnel's thesis. But Fresnel's colleagues, Fran & Ois Arago, insisted on experimental testing at critical moments, and found that there is really a highlight of the miracle to generally appear in the shadow of discs, position brightness and theory are quite perfect. This victory in the theory of Fresnel became a decisive event of the second microwave war. He got the Grand Prix, and he became a legendary figure that can be with Newton, Huygens. The bright spot in the shadow of the disc (later is quite misleading "as" Poisson Bright Spot ") became a heavy weapon in the hand of the fluctun arm, giving the particulate force to a fatal blow. The bonfire of the insurer quickly burned all the fields of optical, rushed the particles from the status of the rule, and the latter crossed the elbow under the severe blow, and the holiday collections. In the mid-19th century, the microparticles said that the only hope of the battle It is the result of the measurement of the speed of light in the water. Because according to particles, this speed should be fast than the speed of the vacuum, and according to the wave, this speed should be slower than the true air. However, unfortunate particulates finally ushered in its Waterloo in 1850 after Moscow in 1819. On May 6th, FOUCAULT, he later known as "Fu Ke" experiments) submitted his report on the speed measurement experiment. After accurately drawing the speed in the vacuum, he also has measured in the water, and found that this value is smaller than the speed in the vacuum. This result thoroughly pronounced the death penalty of the particles. The wave is finally successful after more than 100 years, and the throne of the status of the physics dominant. In a cheerful voice of the winner, the second microwave war declares over the defeat of the particles. But there is still a small difficulty inside the fluctuation, which is the problem of Ether. The fact that is a horizontal wave is very clear. It has also been accurately measured at the speed of propagation. This value reaches 300,000 kilometers / sec, which is an amazing high speed. Through traditional fluctuations, we will inevitably draw its nature of its media: this medium must be very hard, and don't know how many times more than the hardest material diamond. However, the fact is that no one can see or touch this "Ether", and there is no experiment to determine its existence. Starlights cross tens of millions of kilometers from the Earth, but these hardships can't stop any planets or comets, even if it is the most minor! The explanation of fluctuations is that it is a rigid particle, but it is so thin, so that the substance is almost completely unable to resist, "Just like the wind through a small piece of jungle" (Thomas Yang ). Ethers are absolutely stationary in vacuum, only in transparent objects, can be partially dragged (partially dragged fake in Fresnel). This point is actually very savvy, but the fluctuations have not been confused for this. Because more exciting victories will come quickly. Great Maxwell published three papers on electromagnetic theory in 1856, 1861 and 1865. This is a good job in the sky. It has established another giant body in the building of Newton mechanics, and its brilliant Not asa. Maxwell's theoretical prophecy, light is actually only one of electromagnetic waves.

This text is he written in the second papers in 1861 "Physical Power". And we have seen in this chapter that this prophecy is confirmed by Hertz in 1887 with experiments. Wave said suddenly found that it is more than just the rulers in the field, but industry has become the highest commander of the entire electromagnetic kingdom. The glory of fluctuations arrived at the vertices, as long as standing on the earth, its power is like the giant in the ancient Greek mythology, is endless and uncomfortable. And the land it relies on, is the immunity theory of Maxwell. ******** After the meal gossip: Arague Fran & Ois Jean Arago, the regret of the Aragua has always been the defender of light fluctuations, and he and Fresnel are actually long-term cooperation in optical. Fresnel is the idea of ​​light is horizontal, and is originally from Thomas Yang write a letter to Aragua. For the study of the coherence of the two-beam polarized light, it is the same as that of his and Fresnel, and the work of the two has clearly involved two beams from the same light source but the polarization plane is perpendicular to each other, and interference cannot occur. However, in both refraction and polarization, Fresnel clearly have the courage and revolutionary spirit. After the two completed the "interaction of polarized light", Fresnel pointed out that only hypothesis is a horizontal wave, In order to explain these phenomena, and give it. However, Aragua has a skeptical attitude towards this, thinking that Fresnel is too far away. He said to Fresnel to Fresnel, he didn't have the courage to publish this view and refused to have its own name behind this part of the paper. So final Fresnel submitted this part of the content of the name of oneself, causing the vibration of the Academy, but the final experiment demonstrated that he was right. This is probably the biggest regret in Araa, and he has the opportunity to become a famous figure in the history of Fresnel. At that time, the Fresnel was still unknown, but he has already fame in the academic circle, and when the French Institute is selected, the ticket even exceeds the famous Poisson. In fact, in terms of light fluctuations, Aragu has made many outstanding contributions, not under Fresnel, many or two people inspired each other. When Fresnel face Poats question, Aragu still stood in Fresnel, which was his experiment confirmed the existence of Poisson spot, making the fluctuating a final victory. But the key time, but eventually makes him lose the title of "the father of physical optical optics". This laurel is now wearing on the head of Fresnel.

Chapter 5 I said, as Maxwell's theory confirmed by Hz experiment, the fluctuation of light has finally become a staples on a plate. Wave is now so powerful. With the power of Mai's theory, it has completely knocked the particles, and soon, it will develop a unprecedented Empire. Soon, its territory across the entire electromagnetic wave band, from microwave to X-rays, from ultraviolet wire to radio waves, from gamma rays to radio waves ... Ordinary light is just a small country under which it is ruled. Wave the world, the vitality of the strategy, and the four seas is not the king. The poor particles have long been hidden, and it seems that it will never turn over. Hertz's experiment also marks the peak of classic physics. The physics building has never been brilliant, and it is sighful. Newton's mechanics system is so magnificent. Now Maxwell has built another building in it, and its glorious makes people almost look up. The electromagnetic theory is in mathematics, and the famous Mai Mai's equation team just was shocked by the world. It shows profound, symmetry, so that every scientist is intoxicated in it, Bolzmann can't help but quote the poem of Goethe: "Is it about these?" Or until today, wheat The Claim Group is still recognized as a model of science, even before the experiment has not been confirmed, it has been widely recognized. Many great scientists have been convinced for its charm and have been deeply influenced. They have a firm belief in science and beauty, and even think that for a scientific theory, simple and beautiful is more important than experimental data. Regardless of which sense, electromagnetism is a great theory. Roger Whiten Roger Penrose did not hesitate to take it into the Newtonian, relativism and quantum theory in his book, called "superb". theory. Physics conquer the world. At the end of the 19th century, its power controls all the phenomenon known. The ancient Newtonian Castle has always stands still in the year, but it is more great and sturdy. From the stones on the sky to the ground, all things must be honored to follow the rules of its formulation. In 1846, the discovery of Hai Wangxing is one of the greatest victories it. In terms of optics, fluctuations have been unified, and new electromagnetic theory has expanded its glory to the entire electromagnetic world. In terms of heat, the three laws of thermodynamics have been basically established (the third law already has a prototype), and in the Rudolph Clausius, Van Der Waals, Maxwell, Bolzman Under the efforts of Josiah Willard Gibbs, the theory of molecular sports and statistical thermodynamics have been successfully established. Surprisingly, all this matches each other, and it has been inclusive to form a classic physics big profitee. Classic mechanics, classic electric mechanics and classic thermodynamics (plus statistic) form three major pillars in the physical world. They are tightly combined with a piece of gorgeous and majestic temple. This is a great and glorious day, is a golden age of classic physics. The strength of science seems to have never been so powerful, which is fascinating. People may finally believe that the mystery of God's creation is completely mastered by them, and there is no missing place. From the time, we may have qualifications such as pride, because all physical phenomena knows, almost all from the homehenest theory.

Forces, heat, light, electricity, magnetic ... everything is in control, and it is the same way. The physicists have begun to believe that all the basic principles of this world have been discovered, and physics has been perfect. It has come to their own limits and end, and it is impossible to have any breakthroughs. If there is anything you want to do, that is, do some details and supplements, more accurately measured some constant values. People have begun to think that physics has been ended, all issues can be solved with this set of systems, and no more exciting discovery. A famous scientist (it is said to be a great Karend's Lord) said: "The future of physics will only look for the sixth place in the decimal point." Planck's tutor even advised him not to waste time to study this highly mature system. In the end of the 19th century, the golden light shines, symbolizing the full age of the classic physical empire. Such a great period is unprecedented in scientific history, perhaps it will be. However, this unified powerful empire is destined to have a lot of flowers. When you are born, you will be like a bubble to break away. Today, look at the 1887 electromagnetic wave experiment (accurately, it is a series of experiments in 1887-1888) should be complicated and far-reaching. On the one hand, it completely established electromagnetics, adding a strong context to classic physics; on the other hand, it has also buried a weapon that prompted classic physical self-destruction, and gave birth to the seeds of revolution. We still returned to our first part of our story: In the laboratory of the University of Carlsruhe, the gap of the Hertz copper ring receiver kept electric flow, it is clear that the existence of electromagnetic waves is indicated. . But chance, Hz found a strange phenomenon: When there is light to shoot this gap, it seems to be more easier. Hertz also wrote this discovery into a papers, but did not attract a lot of attention at the time. At that time, scholars were rejoicing for the success of the electromagnetic field theory, and Marinn was excited for a huge business opportunity. No one thought of the true meaning of this paper. Lianhez himself does not know that the evidence of the quantum is in front of his eyes, almost tentacles can be available. However, perhaps the concept of quantum is too explosive, too revolutionary, fate is arranged in the new century, and left nostalgia and classic to the old century. Just unfortunately Herz walked too early, fails to see its birth, did not witness what changes will be given to this world. Finally, in the classic physics, there have been many people who have a lot of experience in their own prosperity, a series of unexpected things have happened in the last few years of the 19th century, as if they are an ominous sign. In 1895, Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen found X-rays. In 1896, Bakerne Herni Becqueerel found the radiation of uranium elements. In 1897, Mrs. Marie Curie studied radioactivity and found more radioactive elements:, 钋, radium. In 1897, Joseph John Thomson believed that it was a negative particle stream after studying the cathode rays. Electronics were discovered. In 1899, Rutherford (Ernest Rutherford found the elements' evolution phenomenon. So many new findings have emerged, and it is dazzling. Everyone has begun to feel an uneasy, and it seems that there is a major event so that they will happen.

This building is still towering. It is still so majestic, so uncomfortable, but the atmosphere suddenly became unusually lighter, and a rush of rain is in the hearts of people. The new century will soon come, people don't know what is about, what will history go. Looking at the sky, people can't see two small dark clouds, and they will not contribute to it. No one knows that they are about to bring a hazy rain, and everything in the old world is completely erased from the earth. However, before the arrival of the storm, let us look up and look at the sky of the golden age, as the last nostalgic. Golden light shines on our face, dyed everything with sacred colors. The classic physics building is under its Huiyi, which is so solemn, bruises, can't help but think of the midst of Xeis and the gods in the Olympus mountain. Who will think about it, this is shocking, but it is the last overcome of the huge land of the huge empire.

Chapter II Second Chapter III, on April 27, 1900, the weather in London still has some cold. In the coffee shop on the roadside, people are talking about the Wan Guo Expo at the time that is being held at Paris. The newspaper on the street is selling newspapers in the street, and the latest situation in China, the latest situation in China, and the situation of countries in Beijing. A gentleman is politely holding the lady to the carriage and rushed to the Opera "Bohemian" of Puchi. Two old ladies looked at the carriage, and the model of the lady's hat was greatly admired, but soon, they found a new topic and began to comment on the divorce case of Russell. It seems that even the arrival of the new century, you can't change this city ancient and traditional lifestyle. In contrast, there is not much attention to the report in the Royal Institution, Royal Institution, Albemarle Street. London's top society seems to have put them in Hanfurt in Hanfa. Sir Humphry Davy, which is deserted in its few decades. However, this is a big event for the scientific community. The famous European scientists came here, listening to the high look of high-spirited, but speaking on stubborn old age - Kelvin, the Lord Kelvin. This speech in Kaewe is "19th-century black cloud in the theory of thermal and smooth". At the time, it was 76 years old, and he made a speech with the unique Irish accent. His first paragraph said that: "Dynamics theory asserts that hot and light is a way of sports. But now this theory The beautifulness and clarity have been obscured by two black clouds, which is eclipsed ... "('The Beauty and Clearness of the Dynamical Theory, Which Asserts Heat and Light to Be Modes of Motion, IS At present Obscured by Two Clouds. ') This "black cloud" is later known so that it is repeatedly referenced in almost every book about physics, it has become a model of a model. Contact this time people's optimism of physics, many times, this expression became "two small dark clouds in physics sunny sky." These two famous dark clouds refer to the problem that classic physics encountered in the energism of Light Energy and Maxwell - Bolzman. More specifically, it is the dilemma of people in Michaelson-Mole experiments and black body radiation. Michaelson-Moreure Experiment is used to detect the drift speed of the light. In the concept of people, I represent an absolutely stationary reference department, and the earth passed through the exercise in the space, which was equivalent to driving at the high speed, and the face will blow strong "Too wind". Michaelson conducted an experiment in 1881 and wants to measure this relative speed, but the result is not very satisfactory. So he and another physicist Mo Lei made a second experiment in 1886. This may be the most sophisticated experiment in physics at the time: they have used the latest interferometers, in order to improve the sensitivity and stability of the system, they even raised a big slate, put it in a mercury tank. In this way, the factors of interference have been lowered. However, the experimental results make them shocking and disappointing: the two beams did not exhibit any time difference at all. Ethere seems to have no effect on the rays crossing therein. Michaelson and Murre didn't worry about four days. I have even wanted to observe the difference between the Earth's three seasons for the four seasons of the sun, but because the result of this is so clear, this plan is also Caused helplessly. Michaelson - Moreure Experiment is the most famous "failed experiment" in the history of physics.

It was a sensation in the physical industry because of the representative of the absolute movement as a representative of the absolute movement. And this root supporting the classic physics building is actually unreasonable by the results of an experiment, and immediately means the crash of the entire physical world. However, the pessimistic person did not think that the classic physics learned from the Glory of Glorious Peaks was inexplicably reversed, so people still put forward many compromised methods, Ireland Physicologists Fez Jamu ( George Fitzgerald and Dutch Physicist Lorentz independently proposed a hypothesis that the length of the object will occur in the direction of movement, so that the relative motion speed of the Ethernet cannot be measured. Although these hypothesis make the Ethervous concept to continue to retain, the industry has put forward a strong question, because it is difficult to imagine, a "hypothetical physical quantity" exists. The "first black cloud" said in Kaewe, but he believes that the assumption of length contraction has made people "get rid of the dilemma", and what they have to do is to modify the existing theory to better make The interaction of Ether and substances is self-contained. As for the "second black cloud", it refers to the inconsistency of black body radiation experiments and theory. It will play a very important role in our story, so we will carefully explore this issue in the later chapters. When the speech is delivered in Kairen, this problem still has no signs that can be solved. However, Kaewe is also optimistic about this attitude, because he does not believe that Bolzman's energy is divided. He believes that it is necessary to disseminate this dark cloud, the best way is to negate Bolzman's school (and To be honest, Bolzman's molecular movement theory has indeed a huge dispute at the time, so that this rare genius is unbearable, the spirit has problems. Bolzman tried to commit suicide, but he finally In a small forest in 6 years, he ended his life, leaving a big tragedy in a scientific history). On the podium, the aged Kairen station, the audience under the stage enthusiastically applauded his statement. However, at that time, they would not know what they would know in the middle (including Kairen Irs yourself). What does these two small clouds mean for physics? They are absolutely unimaginable. It is the two inconspicuous dark clouds to bring an unprecedented wind rain, electric flash thunder, and trigger a terrible fire and flood, completely destroy the current prosperity. They can't know that these two black clouds will soon drive them from the luxurious and comfortable theory palace, and they will be able to live in the wilderness of the thorns and traps to live in a few decades. They can't foresee it, it is the two dark clouds, and they will eventually bring great new students to physics, realize Nirvana in the fire and heavy rain, and re-built two more spectacular and beautiful castles. The first black cloud finally led to the outbreak of the relativistic revolution. The second black cloud finally led to the explosion of the quantum theory. It seems that the speech of Kaewe Wen is simply like a mysterious saying, it seems that there is a fate of fate in meditation. Science put a big bend in his prediction, but the direction is completely unexpected. If the old jazz can live to today, read the history of physics in the new century. Is he will be deeply shocked by him in the same year, play a cold in the heart? ******** After meals, gossip: Great "accident" experiments we talked about the famous "accident" experiments in physics history today. The word "accident" refers to the results of the experiment fail to achieve the expected results, and it may be called "failed" experiment to some extent.

We have already talked to Michaelson-Torre experiment. The results of this experiment were so shocking, so that its experimenter did not believe in the correctness of our results during a considerable period of time. But it is this negative evidence that eventually makes the concept of "Light Ether" end, making the birth of relativity become possible. The failure of this experiment should be a great victory in the history of physics, and science has always believed in fact. History of modern science has also had many similar experimental experiments. Perhaps we can talk from the Al Laroisier. At that time, people generally believe that the combustion of objects is because there is "combustion" to leave the object. But for a certain day in 1774, Ravata decided to measure the specific weight of this "aggregate". He used his balance to weigh a tin weight and immediately ignited it. After the metal was completely burned into the ashes, Ravata was carefully collected, and its weight was weighed again. As a result, all people at the time were tab. According to the aggregate, the ashes after burning should be light than before burning. After 10,000 steps, even if the combination is complete, it should be as heavy. However, the balance of Ravata said: ash is more than the weight of the metal before the burning, measuring the weight of the burner into a nonsense. However, Lavadi is surprised, but there is no blame in his own balance, but the skeptical vision is turned to the aggregate. Under his promotion, modern chemistry has finally established in this system inverted. By 1882, the difficulties in experiments also began to troublemakers with chemistry professors in Cambridge University Rayleigh (J.S Rayleigh). For a subject, he needs to accurately measure the specific gravity of various gases. However, on the issue of nitrogen, Rayleigh has encountered trouble. This is this: In order to ensure the accuracy of the results, Rayleigh uses two different methods to separate the gas. One is known by chemists, using ammonia to nitrogen, the other is from ordinary air, as far as possible to remove other gases such as oxygen, hydrogen, water vapor, so that the remaining should be pure nitrogen . However, Rayleigh is distressed that the weight of the two is inconsistent, and the latter is more than two thousandths than the former. Although it is a small difference, it cannot be tolerated for the precise scientists in Rayleigh. In order to eliminate this difference, he wanted to do a way, almost inspected all the instruments, repeated dozens of experiments, but the difference between this thousandth is stubbornly existing, with each measurement, more accurate . This obstacle makes Rayleigh to be crazy. He wrote a letter to another chemist Ramseay to save. The latter pointed out that this weight difference may be caused by mixing a non-perceived heavy gas in the air. Under the common effort of the two, argon (AR) was finally discovered, and eventually leading to the discovery of the entire inert gas family, which became a major evidence in the periodic table of the element. Another experiment worth talking is made by Antoine Herni Becqueerel. At that time, X-rays were found soon, and people were not very clear about it. Some people propose solar illumination fluorescent substances to produce X-rays, and Becharre launched this, he chose an oxide of uranium as a fluorescent material, put it under the sun, and found it indeed made black paper. The film is photolithography, so he derived a preliminary conclusion: the sunlight illumination fluorescent substance generates X-rays. However, justice when he is going further, unexpected things happen. The weather turns overcast, and the clouds covered the sun for a few days. Becker has put his full experience tool, including the film and uranium salt in the safe. However, in the fifth day, the weather still did not change the trend, and Beckerle couldn't hold it, decided to rinse the film and said.

Uranium salts have been illuminated by a little light, regardless of how to leave some blurred traces on the film? However, when getting a photo, Becker has experienced the kind of stunning moments who dream of every scientist. His brain is halo: the film exposure is so thorough, the above pattern is so clear, even more than one hundred times more than the strong sun. This is a historic moment, the radioactivity of the element is first discovered, although it is in a dramatic occasion. Beccaler's surprise, once again opened the door to the internal interior, so that people quickly saw a new world. Behind the story of quantum, we will see more such an accident. These accidents have added a beautiful legendary color to the scientific history, which also makes people's mysterious nature. That is also one of the happiness brought about by science.

Chapter VIII, I said, Kaewe will mention two "small black clouds" in physics at the beginning of the century. The first of which refers to the surprising results of Michaelson-More experiment, and the second is the difficult in the study of people in black radiation. Our story is finally going to enter the right track, and everything is everything, you must start from that confusing "black body". Everyone knows that the reason why an object looks white, that is because it reflects the light waves of all frequencies; it is, if it looks black, it is because it absorbs the optical wave of all frequencies. The "black body" that is physically defined, refers to those that can absorb all foreign radiation, such as a hollow sphere, the inner wall coated to absorb radiated coatings, and open a small hole on the outer wall. Then, because the light from the small hole into the sphere cannot be reflected, this small hole is absolutely black, ie the "black body" we define. At the end of the 19th century, people began to have interest in the thermal radiation problem of the black body model. In fact, in this morning, people have noticed that there is a certain correspondence association for different objects, heat and radiation. For example, metal, people who have experienced experience know, if we put a piece of iron heating on the fire, it will become dark red (actually there is an invisible infrared radiation before this) The temperature is higher, it will become orange, when it is extremely high temperature, if you can find a way to prevent it, we can see that the iron block will present blue white. That is, the thermal radiation and temperature of the object have a certain functional relationship (in astronomy, "red superstars" and "blue superstars", the former is dark red, the temperature is low, usually a senior star; and the latter temperature High, is a model of young stars). The problem is that the radiation energy and temperature of the object have the functional relationship? The initial research on black body radiation is based on classic thermodynamics, and many famous scientists have also made many basic work before this. The thermal radiation gauge of American Langli Pierpont Langley is a best measuring tool that matches the Roland concave grating, which can obtain a fairly accurate thermal radiation energy distribution curve. The concept of "black radiation" is proposed by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and summarizes and studies with Josef Stefan. In the 1980s, Bolzman has established his thermodynamics theory, and some signs also show that this is a powerful theoretical weapon for black radiation research. All in all, this is the basic background of the physical world in this topic when Wilhelm Wien is preparing to derive the black body radiation formula. Wien is the son of the East Pusher's landlord, which seems to be destined to become a farmer, but the economic crisis at that time made him commit to the university study. After Hesidburg, Gordingen and Berlin University have passed his study career, Wenn has entered the German Imperial Technology Institute (Physikalisch Technische Reichsanstalt, PTR) and became the main researcher in the Hermhoz Laboratory. . It is in this laboratory in Berlin, he is preparing to show his talents in theory and experimental physics, completely solve the problem of black body radiation.

Wien starts from classic thermodynamics, assuming that the black body radiation is fired from a molecule that obeys the rate of minimum of Maxwell, and then through a precision interpretation, he finally put forward his radiation energy distribution law formula: u = b λ ^ -5) (E ^ -A / λt) (where λ ^ -5 and E ^ -A / λt represent λ -5 times, respectively, and -A / λt .u represents a function of energy distribution , Λ is a wavelength, T is absolute temperature, A, B is a constant. Of course, here is just a look at this formula, and friends who have not studied mathematics and physics can read even if they don't use it. meaning). This is the famous Wiean distribution formula. Soon, another German physicist Paschen was measured on the basis of Ranli, and the results of various solids were measured. As a result, the formulas of Wenian were well, which made Wien's Preliminary victory. However, Wen is facing a basic problem: his starting point seems to be a recognized realistic Gege, in other words, his molecules assume that classic physics are uncomfortable. Because radiation is electromagnetic wave, everyone has already known that electromagnetic waves are fluctuations, and it seems to analyze the method of classic particles. It seems that people feel faintly unsatisfactory, there is a taste of the South. Sure enough, the Wien's colleagues in the Imperial Technology Institute (PTR) have made another experiment. OTTO RICHARD LUMMER and Plinst Pringsheim reported in 1899 that when the black body heated to a high temperature of 1000 k, the curves and Wenian formulas measured in the short wavelength range were very good. Ok, but in terms of long waves, experiments and theories have deviated. Soon, the other two members of PTR expanded the measurement range of wavelengths, once again affirmed this deviation, and concluded that the energy density should be in the long wave The absolute temperature is proportional rather than the presence of Wen, when the wavelength is infinite, the energy density and temperature have nothing to do. In the past few years in the 19th century, PTR This institution founded by Siemens and Hermhoz seems to be the most striking place in the thermodynamics. This group of theory and experimental physicists seem to be revealed. Open a maximum secret in physical. The failure of Wien's law in the long wave caused the British physicist Raylei (I still remember the last time we gossip the weight of nitrogen, and finally discovered the inert gas jazz?), He tried to modify The formula is adapted to U and T is proportional to this experimental conclusion, and finally he has drawn his own formula. Soon after another physicist Kings (JHJeans) calculated the constant in the formula, and finally they got the form of formulas as follows: u = 8π (^ 2) KT / C ^ 3 This is what we said today Rayleigh-Jeans, where is the frequency, K is the Bolzman constant, C is the speed of light. Similarly, friends who are not interested can do not necessarily pay specific meaning, which is no impact on our story. In this way, the experimental results of U and T were proportional to the low-temperature long waves were provistered. However, it may be like a Asual saying, the Rayleigh-Golden Formula is a typical of a demolition of the Wall. Because it is very ironic that it meets experimental data in terms of long waves, but in short waves failure is obvious.

When the wavelength λ tends to be 0, it is that the frequency υ tends to be infinite, you can see our energy radiation from the above formula will inevitably tend to be infinite. In other words, our black body will release almost infinite energy when the wavelength is short to a certain extent. This dramatic incident is undoubtedly ridiculous, because no one has seen any object to release energy radiation in any temperature (if you really want this, then the atomic bomb is too simple). This inference was later plus a sensational, very suitable for the name of the science fiction, called "UV". Obviously, the Rayleigh-Golden Formula cannot give the correct black-body radiation distribution. What we have encountered here is a quite subtle and embarrassing situation. In our hands, there are two formulas, but unfortunately, they can only work in the range of short waves and long waves, respectively. This is indeed a very depressed, just like you have two clothes, one of which is very decent, but the trouser leg is too long; the other's trousers are right, but it is not able to wear it. The most interesting thing is that these two clothes have no way to wear together. In short, on the black body problem, if we derive from the perspective of classic particles, we receive Wenian formula for short-wave. If you derive from the angle of the class wave, you get the Rayleigh-Kushel-Kes formula for long waves. Fish and bear's paw can't be both, long waves or short waves, that is a problem. This problem is like this, which has a physicist, has a black humor. When Kairen describes this "second black cloud" on the stage, people don't know how this problem will finally get a solution. However, after all, the bells of the new century have ringer, and the great revolution of physics is coming. At this time, the first protagonist in our story, a german who left a mustache, slightly a bit of the Germans - Max Plancock boarded the stage, and the new scene of physics finally opened.

Chapter 8, three last time, in the study of the problem of black body, we have two formulas. Unfortunately, a set can only be effective in the long wave range, and another set is only effective for short waves. Just when people have a headache for this Dilemma, Max Plan is on the historical stage. The hit is destined, this name will be illuminated throughout the 20th century physics. Max Carl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel, Germany in 1858. His grandfather and Zeng Fengfang are professors of theology. His father is a famous law professor who has participated in the drafting of Prussian Civil Law. In 1867, Prance moved to Munich, and Xiao Pang was in the middle school and university. When the Bismarck Empire is booming, Prance retains the fine style of the classical period, which is very interested in literature and music, and also shows extraordinary genius. However, soon, his interest is turned to nature. In the classroom in the middle school, his teacher explained a worker how worker moved the bricks on the top, and the worker's strength was stored in the potential energy, once the brick dropped, energy Release it out ... Energy This magical conversion is greatly attracted to the curious Planck, making him look forward to the mysterious nature law, which has become the starting point of his life. Deutsche lost a musician, but lost to the east, she was therefore a scientific master who opened the sky. However, as we have said in the previous chapter, the theoretical physics at that time did not look at a very promising job. Prank's mentor in the university persuaded him that the physics system has established very mature and complete, there is no big discovery can be made, don't take time to waste, there is not much? Significant work above. The Planck demonstrated that he studied physics for the interest of nature and rationality, just want to make an existing thing to figure out, and it is not expected to make a huge achievement. Ironically, it seems that this "very interesting" said that one of the biggest breakthroughs in the physical circles has achieved the prestige of Prance. We should feel lucky for this decision. In 1879, Plan has got a Ph.D. in Munich, and then he successively teaches at Kieil University, Munich University and University of Berlin, and takes place in Kilkov. Planck's research interest was only concentrated in the classic thermodynamics, but in 1896, he read the papers on the black body radiation and showed great interest in this. In Prance, the inherent law of this object reflected in Wenian formula - absolute laws with the nature of the object itself - represents a certain objective and constant. It exists independently of people and material worlds, not affected by the external world, is the highest interest of scientific pursuit. This preference of Plank is a traditional and style of classic physics, an absolute strict law. This classical and conservative thought has passed Newton, Laplas and Maxwell, with all the aristocrats in the golden age, deeply penetrated inside the Prance's bones. However, this respectable old scientist did not realize that he has already walked to the forefront of the times, and fate is already in the middle of the time, giving him a role of the rebellion. Let us go to the positive biography. At the turn of the century of the changing, Planck decided to completely solve the problem of black body radiation. His hand already has Wenian formula, but unfortunately this formula only proves the experimental results in the range of short waves. On the other hand, although Planck claims that he did not know the Rayleigh formula, he undoubtedly knows that U and T are simple and proportional to the relationship.

This is a good friend of him, the experimental physicist Rubens (Heinrich Rubens, the last chapter) told him at noon from October 7, 1900. On this day, Prance had spent 6 years on this issue (in 1894, when he did not understand Wi-En, he has already taken out this area), but all The efforts seem to be in vain. Now, please quiet, let our Mr. Planck think about the problem. All the facts presented in front of him is that we have two formulas that work only in a limited range. However, if it is fundamentally pursued, any problem cannot be found. And our goal is to find out a universal applicable formula. Germany in October has entered Zhongqiu. The weather is getting more and more sinking, the thick clouds are stacked in the sky, and the night is longer than one day. The falling leaves, full of streets and fields, occasionally blowing cold winds, and raging in the sand. During the day, Berlin is lively, and the Berlin in the night is quiet and solemn, but in this quiet and hustle and bustle, there is no one to think that a great historical moment is coming. In the Office of the Draft of the Draft of the Draft Berlin, Planck thought for the two uncomfortable formulas. One day, he decided that no longer did the fundamental assumption and derivation, no matter what, let's try to make a formula that can meet all the bands. Other questions, then let go. Thus, using mathematical interpolation, Planke began to play two formulas in his hand. What you have to do is let the influence of Wenian formulas disappeared in the range of long waves, and in the short wave "exclusive". Plank tried a few days and finally met a bingo moment. He made a formula that seems to be in line with the requirements. At long waves, it behaves like a relative relationship. When it is short-wave, it degenerates the original form of Wenian formula. On October 19, Prance was public in the meeting of the German Physikalischen Gesellschaft. On the evening, Rubbus carefully compared the results of this formula and experiment. As a result, let him surprised and happy. The formula of Prance won the whole victory. In each wave section, the data given by this formula is very accurately compliant with the experimental value. The next day, Rubens notified the results of Prance, in front of this thorough success, Prance himself couldn't help but He didn't think that this is completely lucky and a strong empirical formula actually has this powerful power. Of course, he also thought that this shows that the success of the formula is not just luck. This shows that behind the mysterious formula, it must hide some secrets that are not known to people. There must be some kind of principle that it is assumed to support this formula, which makes it exhibits unparalleled power. Planc gazes his formula again, what kind of physical significance is it representative? He found that he is in a quite embarrassing position, knowing, but I don't know how it is. Planck is like an unlucky candidate. In advance, I have a photo of the book, but I found myself only remember that conclusion, but I didn't know how to demonstrate and explain it. The results of the experiment are conclusive. It has no vaguely proves the correctness of theory, but why is this theory? Is it based on what kind of basis? But no one can answer.

However, Planck knows that this is hidden in this, it is related to the entire thermodynamics and electromagnetic foundation. Planck has been blurred, it seems that there is a storm that is about to hit, and the analysis of this inconspicuous formula will change some of the faces of physics. A slice of sixth told him that the most important period of his life has arrived. After many years, Planck said in a letter to the human being: "At that time, I have been struggling for radiation and substances for 6 years, but I have nothing. But I know that this problem is critical to the entire physics, I also The formula for determining energy distribution has already been found. So, no matter what price, I must find it in theoretical explanation. And I am very clear, classic physics is unable to solve this problem ... "(Letter to rw Wood, 1931) On the watershed of life, Prance finally decided to take out his greatest determination and courage to open this Pandora box in front of it, no matter what it is. In order to understand this mystery, Prance has a kind of gas profile. In addition to the two laws of thermodynamics, he thinks that it is not possible to shake, even the entire universe, he is prepared to abandon. However, this is the case, when he finally understands the meaning behind the formula, he is still surprised to believe and accept everything discovered. Planck did not think that his work was more than just some of the faces of physics. In fact, the entire physics and chemistry will be completely destroyed and rebuilt, and a new era is coming soon. In the last few months of 1900, the black body drifted in the physical sky, and the inside began to roll up. ******** After meals, gossip: World Science Center In our History, we have seen a lot of scientific great people, we can clearly see the continuous migration of the World Science Center. At the beginning of the establishment of modern science, the British is a disordered world science center (previously Italy). Newton as a generation of scientists don't have to say, Yoshi Ear, Hook, has been the later David, Cavan, Daltton, Fara, Thomas, is a large scientist in the world. But soon, this center turned to France. The rise of France was started by Daniel Bernoulli, Dallan Ball, Ravata, Raimak, etc., to Ampere, Nicolas Carnot, Laplas, Fuko, Poisson, Lagrang's era, has been unique in Europe. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Germany began to catch up, and there was a large batch of genius, Gauss, Ohr, Humboldt, Warle (Frieldrich Wohler), Hermhoz, Claucus, Bolzman, Hertz ...... Although the UK has joined Faranda, Maxwell, Darwin is not enough to grab it to its original position. At the beginning of the 20th century, Germany's achievements have reached the highest peak in science, and became the holy place in the minds of scientists around the world, Berlin, Munich and Göttingen became a well-deserved worldwide center. In the history of the future, we will see more and more German names. Unfortunately, after the Nazi is going to stand, Germany's scientific status has a large number of scientists to escape foreign countries, causing the rise of the United States until today. I only don't know, who will the next hegemony?

Chapter III Four last time, Prance was occasionally discovered a universal formula when studying the black body, but he did not know the physical significance behind this formula. In order to explain his new formula, Planck has decided to throw all the traditions in his heart. He repeatedly chews the meaning of new formulas, and understands it and the links of the two formulas and different. We have seen that if you derive radiation law from the perspective of Bolzman's moving particles, you get Wenian's form. If it is derived from the perspective of pure micronvavir electromagnetic radiation, it is obtained in the form of Rayleigh-Kes. Then, the new formula is based on the point of view of the particles, or is built on the angle of the wave? As a traditional conservative physicist, Prance is always trying to solve the problem in theory inside the theory, rather than subverting this theory. What's more, he faces or has the greatest Maxwell electromagnetic theory. However, after all kinds of attempts have failed, Planck found that he must accept the statistical mechanics stand that he has never liked, from the perspective of Bolzman, introducing entropy and probabilies into this system. That day, it was the busiest, but the most brilliant day in Prance. 20 years later, in 1920, he recalled this in Nobel's winning speech: "... After the tension in a lifetime, I finally saw the dawn of the dawn. A completely unexpected scene in me Presentation in front of it. "(... Until After Some Weeks of the Most Intense Work of My Life Clearness Began To Dawn Upon Me, And An Unexpected View Revealed Itself in The distance) What is" completely unexpected scene "? It turns out that Planck discovery, only introducing the molecular motion theory or not enough, when processing entropy and chances, if we want to make our new equation, you must make a hypothesis, assume that energy is transmitting and absorbing, not continuous Continuous, but divided into one copy. In order to attract enough attention, I think I should repeat the above words again. In fact, I really want to write this passage with the black body of the first name, but unfortunately, the forum will not give me this feature. "Must be assumed that the energy is not continuous, but it is divided into one copy when transmitting and absorbing." Before you understand the specific meaning of it, you can first understand the fact: it is this assumption, overthrowing Since Newton More than 200 years, I have been considered a strongly destroyed classic world. This hypothesis and the meaning it derived, thoroughly changing the most fundamental understanding of people since ancient times. The Empire of the elderly, the earthlifting of the earth in front of this sentence, the fast, just like Allen slope, the homogeneous manor. Ok, return to our story. Energy is not continuous, what is this? very impressive. Because it is close to the concept of all physicists in history (except some pseudo scientists, huh, huh). Since Galileo and Newton tamed in nature with mathematical rules, all nature processes were used as continuous uninterrupted. If your middle school physics tells you, a car is driving along the line from A, but you will not feel incredible, and even began to doubt what the teacher is with the principal. relationship. Natural continuity is so uncomfortable, so that few people will be suspected.

When the forecast, the temperature will rise from 20 degrees to 30 degrees, you will not hesitate to determine, in the middle of this process, the temperature will reach 25 degrees at some point, reach 28 degrees, arrive at 29 and 1/2 degree, arrive at 29 3/4 degrees, reaching 29 and 9/10 degrees ... In short, everything is worth 20 degrees and 30 degrees, whether it is reasonable or uneven, as long as it is within the interval, the temperature will definitely at a moment. It is precisely equal to that value. This is also true for energy. When we said, this chemical reaction released the energy of 100 joules, and each of us will submit it. During the reaction, there is a moment, the total energy released is equal to 50 Joules, equal to 32.233 Joule, Oriented to 3.14159 ... Joule. In summary, the release of energy is continuous, and it can always reach any possible values ​​within a moment. This concept is so direct implantation of our inner depths, which seems to be in a general manner. This continuity, smooth hypothesis is the fundamental basis of calculus. Newton, Mike Various system, the building above this foundation, spent a hundred years of wind and rain. When physical encounters difficulties, people have doubtful eyes, and they are also staring at the 巍巍 building. I ask if there is a problem in building structures, but never doubt whether the land under its feet is solid. Nowadays, Planck has triggered a major earthquake, and physics began to shake the fundamentals based on the establishment. The equation of Prance is reluctant to require only limited number of energy, it can't be unlimited. At the time of launch, it must be divided into a limited copy, must have a minimum unit. This is like a ghost paying, although he tried to pay less money as much as possible, but in any case, he had to pay 1 Penny every time, because there is no smaller unit than this. This process of paying is a discontinuous process. We can't find any time, making the payer just paying the state of 1.00001 yuan, because the minimum unit is 0.01 yuan, paying the account can only be "one copy". When we can find him paying 1 yuan, we can also find him to pay 1.01 yuan, but in the middle of these two states, there is no state, although in theory, between 1 yuan and 1.01 yuan, There is also an unlimited multiple numbers. Planck discovery that the transmission of energy must also follow this currency-based approach, at least one determined amount, not unlimited down. The transmission of energy must also have a minimum base unit. Energy can only be issued in this unit, without half a unit or quarter unit. Between two units, it is a restricted area of ​​energy, we will never find that the measurement of energy will appear after the number of decimal points. On December 14, 1900, people were still busy preparing for Christmas. On this day, Prance published his bold assumption at the German Physics Society.

He read the papers of the "Energy Distribution in the Black Spectra in the Name", which changed history: In order to find the possibility of n oscons with total energy UNN, we must assume that UN is not continuous divided, it can only be a limited sum of some of the same components ...... (die Wahrscheinlichkeit zu finden, dass die N Resonatoren ingesamt Schwingungsenergie Un besitzen, Un nicht als eine unbeschr & nkt teilbare, sondern al seine ganzen Zahl von endlichen gleichen Teilen aufzufassen ...) this Basic components, Prance referred to it as "EnergieElement, but then quickly, in another paper, he is called" Elementarquantum), English is Quantum. This word comes from the Latin Quantus, the original meaning is "how much", "quantity". Quantum is the minimum unit of energy, which is one of the energy in energy. All energy transmission can only be performed in this amount, which can transmit a quantum, two quantums, any integer quantum, but cannot transmit 1/2 quantum, that state is not allowed, Just like you can't pay 1/2 cents with your own money. So, what is this minimum unit? The size of this constant can be easily calculated from the equation of Prance, it is about 6.55 × 10 ^ -27 Eger * seconds, conversion is coke, is 6.626 × 10 ^ -34 Joule * seconds. This unit is quite small, that is, the quantum is very small, very fine. Therefore, it is naturally "fine", so that we usually look, it seems to be continuous. This value has now become one of the most important constants in natural sciences, named "Planck constant", is represented by H. Remember this day on December 14, 1900, this day is the birth of quantum mechanics. The quantum of ghost is out of the equation of Prance and begins to wand over the Europe. After a few years, it will break out the power of the power, completely break all the old systems, and carry out a shocking duel with the united conservatives. We will see in the later chapters, this ghost is so revolutionary and destructive, so that it has passed, the most fascinating palace turned into a broken wad. The precision system constructed by physics is unrestricted into scrap iron, and the unchanging axiom has been thrown into the garbage bin in thousands of years. The shock and impact it brought is so big, so that the great pioneers who later have been frightened, they have stood in its opposite. Of course, it is more than just a destroyer. It is a unprecedented builder. The most outstanding genius in the history of scientific history participated in each step in its growth, giving it a gorgeous personality and unparalleled power. . The greatest construction of human ration will eventually be born in its hands. A unprecedented revolution has come, a revolution with the most rebellious and thorough revolution, is also the most legendary and epic color. The seeds of the storm have been produced in the center of the dark cloud. When they are only suitable, they have to mourn the unprecedented lightning and storms, indicating the existence of its existence to the world. And all of this starts from the man named Max Planck. ******** After the meal gossip: continuity and paradox Ancient Greece has a school called Aiya, its creation named Parmenides.

The philosopher is full of curiosity, but in his view, sports is a contradictory behavior, it is impossible to be true, and must be a fake phase. why? Because Pastid believes that there is only one "existence" in the world, since it is the only existence, it is impossible to exercise. Because, except "existence" is "non-existent", "existed" can move to "non-existent" inside? So he thinks "existed" is absolutely stationary, and the exercise is ridiculous, and the exercise we understand is just a false phase. Badenid has a student, which is a great name (ZENO). In order to defend his teacher, he proves that the movement is impossible, compirating several famous paradox to explain the absurdity of the movement. We talk about the most famous one here, that is, "Achilles Chasing Tab", which involves the continuity of time and space. Achilles is the Greek Hero in Shi Poetry "Iliat". One day he touched a turtle, and the turtle laughed him: "Others said you are amazing, but I think if you run with me, I can't catch me." Achilles laughed: "How is this possible. I will run slowly, and the speed is also 10 times. I can't catch up with you? "The turtle said:" Well, then we have a $ 100 meter, your speed is 10 times. Now you Come chasing me, but when you ran to this position, it is 100 meters, I have already ran 10 meters before. When you catch this position, I ran forward. 1 meter, you will chase 1 meter again, I ran 1/10 yard ... In short, you can only close me infinitely, but you can't catch up with me. "How to listen to what Achilles?" I can't touch my husband for a while. This story is a "Zhi Luo Palace" (one), and philosophers have elaborated this proposition from various perspectives. This proposition is troubled, it is that it adopts an infinite division of space, making us unable to skip this unlimited talk. Although we can know unlimited additions from mathematics, we can limit it in a limited value, but mathematics can only tell us how to do it, but can't tell us to do it. However, since the quantum revolution, the scholars have become more and more, and the space is not necessarily unlimited. The quantum effect makes the continuity of the space and the time loss, and the assumptions of the continuous segmentation of Zhido cannot be established. In this way, Zhi Luo paradise did not attack it. Quantum Theory tells us that the concept of "unlimited segmentation" is a mathematical ideal, and it is impossible to achieve in reality. Everything is discontinuous, continuous beauty blueprints, is actually an imagination of our imagination.

Chapter 10, the story of our story, if you leave such an impression on everyone, it is that the quantum has a temperament of the savior. It is like a lightning to break the night sky, causing everyone's horror and cheers, and destroyed Break the system of the old world. If this is the case, then the author said sorry because the fact is not the case. Let's go back and look at the great theories in physical history: Newton's system shines with the glory of sacred causing, and has a kind of discouragement in the sky. Maxwell's equation is simple, dumped all beings, and is known as the poem written by God. Although Einstein's relativity is a civilian origin, but the bones inherit the classic system's aristocratic temperament, and its rays will immediately illuminate the entire era. These theories, their success is almost overwhelming, returning to life, irresistible. And the great people's personal genius and charm are even more proud of them. However, the quantum theory is different, and the history of quantum theory is more like a difficult exploration history. Every step is full of traps, thorns and fog. The birth of quantum is accompanied by huge pain, and its fate is destined to undulate. The thoughts of quantum theory are so rebellious and bustling, so that it has a civilian style that has a strong defendant; and the potential power it shows is so huge and uncontrollable, all of which makes all People are deeply afraid of it. In the middle of these people, the most ironic is the founder of quantum: Plank himself. As an old traditional physicist, Prance's thoughts are conservative. Although in 1900 that decided fate, he picked up the biggest courage to make a quantum revolutionary assumption, but then he was deeply plagued for this legity thought. On the black body problem, the Prance is a positive result, but the final exported energy is not continuous, but he is very surprised and hesitating, it becomes more serious. If energy is quantified, then Maxwell's theory will pretend to be in question, this is incredible, unimaginable in Prance. In fact, Prance never made this as a problem. In his view, the supplement of quantum is not a physical true, and it is purely a hypothetical assumption to facilitate convenience. Prestock did not think that his theory would have so great in history. When a series of incidents have gradually exposed this meaning to him, he can't believe his eyes and This is awkward. Some people joked that Planck was like the fisherman in a fairy tale. He personally put the devil from the bottle of the seal, but he was scared by this devil. More than ten years, the quantum was abandoned by his creator and had to wandering four squares. Planck continues to warn people, when referenced to the Planck constant H, try to be cautious as possible, do not have to think about it. This idea has been around 1915, and when Boir's model gains unprecedented success, it was twisted in Planter's mind. Quantum Theory is like Hercules in myths, and is abandoned in the wilderness, and fate is more important. All of his glory must be struggled by his extraordinary strength and a series of difficult struggles. As a Planker, he finally walked from a revolutionary founder to the opposite side of the times, and he did not play more positive roles in this exciting history. This is undoubtedly unfortunate. In the "Science Autobiography" published before his death, Planck has recalls his intentional investment and quantum and classic theory, and ambiguity is much more important than the quantum is much more important than that. However, we cannot deny that Planck's great and decisive contribution to the quantum is.

Some opinions may think that Planck is just a coincidentally, a pure luck discovered his black body equation, and then assumes the quantum theory. He is just a lucky one, and it happened to guess the correct answer. What does this answer mean, the inherent value of this answer is not he can answer and excavate. However, almost all of the biography and research on Prance will tell us that although Prance's formula is largely empiric, all evidence shows that he has fully prepared this answer. . In 1900, Planck has been immersed in black body for 6 years, making all the preparations for theoretical breakthrough. In fact, he was already very clear that the classic electromagnetic theory had no way to explain the experimental results, and the thermodynamic explanation must be introduced. In this way, the discontinuities of radiation energy are already an inevitable result. This concept is actually formed in his mind, although Prance is not aware of this, or refuses to admit this, but this idea is actually quite mature in his subconscious, Because of this, he can pointed the invaluable hypothesis that is contained in just a short time after exporting the equation. Planck treats the challenge of the black body with a very rare attitude towards the era. He opened a door to the new unknown world for later people. No matter which point of view, such great work, its significance is not underestimated. The conservative attitude of Prance is not accidental. It is really a quantum thought is too amazing, too much revolution. From the perspective of the growth history of quantum, there is such a strange circle: The scientific giants participate in the work that promotes it, but finally she has been conservative because they can't accept the changing explanation. On this list, in addition to Planck, there is a sparkling Rayleigh, Thomson, Einstein, Debroe, and Schrödinger. These are not only the greatest names in physical history, but many of the pioneers and key characters of quantum theory itself. The quantum grows in the struggle with its own creators, and every step is hard and painful. We will go to observe these fierce ideological impact and concept collision in the future sections. However, it is such a temper that makes a quantum history look so much wave and magnificent, which makes the quantum theory itself more showing its immortal light. Quantum theory is not like Newton Mechanics or Einstein. It doesn't have a genius personal label. On the contrary, the whole generation of elites contributes to its glory. As a representative of the old scientist, Prance's scientific spirit and personality power is undoubtedly respectable. During the Nazis rule, it was the efforts of Planck, so that many Jewish scientists were protected to continue to work. However, the quantum is in the forefront of the era, it requires the most sharp mind and the most innovative idea to activate its aura. At the beginning of the 20th century, the physical sky was already black and shot, and each liter air seems to be intensely converated and oscillation. A great era requires great characters, the best and most passionate generation of physics ever grow up in this chaos. On December 14, 1900, Planck read his paper on the black body in Berlin and announced the birth of the quantum. That year he was 42 years old. At that year, a young man named Albert Einstein graduated from the Zurich Federal Institute (ETH), is working in the future. He was unfained in the university, so that his professor, Minkowski, angry, was "lazy". No one is willing to stay him in school, the theory or experimental work, and an unemployed bleak is waiting for this unfolded young man.

In Denmark, Niels Bohr, Niels Bohr, is reading in Copenhagen. Boir has a good personality, each time fighting or argument, always less. In terms of learning, he showed extraordinary genius in mathematics and science, but his clumsy mouth and the terrible composition of the whole school were famous. Especially the final summary of the composition, often makes Boir headache for a long time, in which this summary is meaningless repeated. Once he wrote a paper about the metal, finally summed up: in Conclusion, I would like to Mention Uranium (in turn, I want to say uranium). Erwin Schrodinger Biber is two years old, at the time in a famous high school in Vienna, Akademisches Gymnasium. This secondary school is also a master of Physical Senior Bollzman, a famous dramatic Schnitzler and STEFANIE ZWEIG. For students who have just entered school, Latin is the most important homework, accounting for 8 hours a week, and mathematics and physics are only 3 hours. However, for Schrödinger, everything is a small dish, he loves ancient Chinese, drama and history, each at the class is the first. Xiao Elwen is very handsome, put on a dress and tights, and a little bonus, which makes him very welcome. Max Born and Schrödinger have similar educational background. After family education, advanced middle schools have entered the University of Breslan (this is also a common practice of Germany and Austria in the Upper Family of Austria). However, compared to Schrödinger, Bonn doesn't like Latin, and even don't like algebra, although he has changed in college later. He madly liked the astronomy, and his dreams became an astronomer in the future. Louis de Broglie was 8 years old, and he was receiving good young education in his prominent aristocratic family. He has a strong interest in history, and he is willing to spend his time on this. Wolfgang? Enstet? Bubble (Wolfgang Ernst Pauli) is born 8 months, and poor little guys seem to be born and scientifically. His middle name, Ernst is because his father worshiped the famous scientist Erste Mach (Ernst Mach) gave him. More than 12 months, a famous Greek literature in Wurzberg would like to look at his baby son Xiahesenburg (Werner Karl Heisenberg). Before you early, a civil servant in Rome named his children Engelk Fermi. After 20 months, Paul Dirac will also be born in the port of Bristol in the UK. Ok, actor arrived. So, the priest should also be staged. (Chapter 2)

Chapter III Third Chapter II in the days of the quantum, the situation of physics has not improved significantly. The rebellious elf was abandoned by his owner, and he had to move in the wilderness and accumulated power to wait for the world to shock. In this dimension of more than four years, people with a ostrich mentality use Plank's formula, but masks the meaning behind the formula. However, on their heads, the strong dark clouds still drive, but there is a more and more forceful momentum, and there is no hanging rain in the world. It is foreseeable that this kind of change is as usual, it is a lightning that opens the world. In chaos, electric sparks wiped out a dazzling shine, representing the eternal hope. The power of light and electricity, the strength of the gods and the awe, and opened up a whole new era in instantly. Speaking of this, we still have to return to the beginning of the first chapter, then look at the very extraordinary experiment. As we have mentioned, the split on the Hz receiver confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves, but he also found that once there is light to illuminate the gap, then the electric spark is easy. Hertz describes this phenomenon in the thesis, but there is no reason. At that exciting great era, there is too much things to do, and he is paid by Hertz, and he has no leisure to pursue each encountered problem. However, others immediately conducted in-depth research, soon, the facts were very clear. It turned out that when the light was irradiated on the metal, it would be electronically from its surface. The original constraints in the metal surface atoms, I don't know why, when exposed to a certain light, the birds like the shocking bow have escaping, just like seeing the vampire family of light. This kind of interesting phenomenon that exists between light and electricity, people have given it a name called "Photoelectronic Effect). Soon, a series of experiments on the photovoltaic effect is made in various laboratories. Although at the time, these experiments were very rough and original, but various results still show some basic nature of this phenomenon between light and electricity. Soon learned two basic facts: First, for a particular metal, it is possible to blow out the electron from its surface, this is only related to the frequency of the light. High frequency, such as ultraviolet rays, can be able to make electrons with high energy, and low frequency (such as red light, yellow light), one electronics can't beat. Second, it can be hit out of electron, which is not related to the intensity of light. Weak ultraviolet rays can also hit the electron surface of the metal, and the strong red light cannot be done. Increase the intensity of the light, it can only increase the number of hits the number of electrons. For example, a relatively weak purple light relatively weak, more electrons can be hit from the metal surface. All in all, for a particular metal, can not be used, and the frequency of light is calculated. How much electrons are played, the intensity of light is counted. But scientists quickly found that they have fallen into a huge confusion. Because ... this phenomenon doesn't make sense, it doesn't seem like this. We all already know that light is a fluctuation. For fluctuations, the strength of the wave represents its energy. We are very easy to understand that electrons are bound by a certain energy in the metal, and if the energy given outside is not enough, it is not enough to strike electronics.

However, when XI, if we increase the intensity of the optical wave, it is an increase in its energy. Why is it for red light, and even a strong light can't fight, even an electronic coming? And what is the frequency, what is the frequency? It is nothing more than the frequency of wave vibration. If the frequency is high, it is said that the wave vibration is often frequent, so taken that frequent vibration light waves should hit more of the number of electrons. However, all experiments point to the opposite direction: the intensity of light determines the number of electronic, and the frequency of light decides whether to play electronics. Is this not a joke? Imagine a hunter to play the rabbit, the rabbit hide in the underground hole, it is easy to not be willing. The hunter knows that for the sly rabbit, it may not be scared in order to scare it, but must use the slight manner. That is to say, what kind of technique is used to determine the problem that can catch the rabbit. Hipworthy has a thousand rabbit holes in the local local, so how many assistants can be operated at the same time, how many cave can be used to measure how many rabbits can be scared. However, in actual hunting, this hunter suddenly found that the rabbit can't come out, but how many assistants will start at the same time. If only a rabbit hole is active, I don't have a rabbit. On the contrary, how many rabbits have been driven out, this is nothing to do with our number, but a relationship with the techniques used. Even if I have a thousand people to take a thousand rabbit caves, only one rabbit jumps out. As long as I drove the water for a rabbit hole, there will be a thousand rabbits. If you draw comics, this hunter's head will have a big sweat. Scientists have found that they are facing the same embarrassment like the hunter. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory is a misty water in photoelectric, I don't know how to do it. The fact that the experiment was revealed was simple and clear, and repeated repetitions had more confirmed this basic facts, but this fact is just the opposite of theory. So, where is the problem? Is the theoretical, or our eyes joke with us? The problem is not just these. There are signs that there is a close relationship between the frequency of light and the energy of the energization. Each particular frequency of light, the energy therefor has a corresponding upper limit. For example, if ultraviolet light can inspire energy to reach 20 electron-volt volt, it may only be 10 equivalent. This is very incredible in fluctuations. Moreover, according to Maxwell theory, an electronic is hit, if it is built on energy absorption, it should be a continuous process, which can accumulate. That is, if the metal is irradiated with a weak light, the electron must take a certain time to absorb, to achieve sufficient energy to jump out of the surface. In this case, there should be a time difference between the illumination and electronics. However, the experiment shows that the use of electrons is instantaneous, and there will be electronic flying out, even if there is a weak light, and the difference is that the number of times is to fly out of the electron. A strange thing. For poor physics, everything is always a wish. It's hard to have a basic perfect theory, and the experiment always has some strange things to disturb people's dreams. This dead photoelectric effect is a fascinating and disappointment. Elegant and distinguished Maxwell Theory is greatly criticized in front of this small mud pond, how to cross the past and don't stain your gorgeous clothes, and it is a matter of injury. However, even more unfortunately, people always look at the difficulties before their eyes.

There is a clean physicist who thinks about how to integrate the photoelectric phenomenon into the Maxwell theory without damaging it, but they don't know that this thing is much more serious than they imagined. Soon people will find that this is not a problem that the robes do not clean, which is a fundamental difficulty involving the entire physical system basis. However, at the time, for this, there was no talented, the most daring and most sharp eyes, it was unable to see. However, it is back, and the most talented, the most daring and most sharp people have lived in that era. In 1905, in the Swiss Bern Patent Office, a 26-year-old small civil servant, three-class technicians said, a young man who left a mess, stopped his eyes on this issue of photoelectric effects. The name of this person is Albert Einstein. So, in a moment, the lightning was broken over the night sky. The storm is finally coming.

The twelfth chapter 2 The Swiss Patent Office in Bern is now a highly efficient and modern institution, providing people with patents, trademark applications and query services. Beautiful architecture and perfect network system make it a typical modern style like some other companies. As a pure scientist, it is generally rarely dealing with the patent office because there is no patent to apply because there is no national border. The big door of science is to open to the world. However, for the scientific community, Bern's patent bureau means a lot. It is in the history of modern science, not in Mecca, Islamic culture, has a quite sacred glorious. This is because of 100 years ago, this patent office hired a small staff member, and his name is Albert Einstein. This story tells us once again, there will be a big monk in the small temple. In 1905, for Einstein, the bad days have finally been almost the same. The era for work and livelihood is over, there is no need to come back to you without anything. The Patent Office provided him a stable position and income, although only three other technicians - and his application is second-class - good is also a formal civil service. Three years ago, the father's death gave Einstein, but he quickly got comfort and compensation from his wife. Serbia Girl Mikova Mileva Marec promised to marry this in the second year (1903), which often appeared, and there was a son soon, named Hans. Now, Einstein works 8 hours in his office every day, puts the pile-shaped patented drawings, and then he caught home and pushed the stroller to take a walk on the Bern's road. When he came down, he gathered with friends, everyone discussed Hume, Sbinoza and Lexin. When I was born, Einstein took out his violin and showed everyone or accompaniment. Of course, more time, he is also a physical issue that is most interested, when you are caught in meditation, you often have forgotten your food. 1905 is a fairly mysterious year. In this year, the genius of human genius sprayed, and the river was rumored, and the most shocking beautiful spray was rolled up. So that today we go back and see, they can't help but be amazed and excited, so the miracle is so strange. This year, for the wisdom of human beings, it is really an extreme peak, written out the wonderful scientific melody written in that day, until today, let us be drunk, I don't know the meat. And the creators of all the masters of the master, this person who climbs the genius is the small civil servant in our Bern Patent Office. Or let us return to Zheng, March 18, 1905, Einstein published a papers in the "Physi Der Physik) magazine, is called" a inspirational point of inspection on the production and transformation of light "( A Heuristic Interpretation of the Radiation and Transformation Of Light, as a start of a series of miracles in 1905. This article is the sixth formal papers that Einstein has been published (the first article published in 1901 about the capillary phenomenon, using his own words, "no valuable"), and this papers will Give him a Nobel Prize, which has also created a new era of quantum theory. Einstein is from the quantum assumption of Prance. Everyone also remembers that Planck assumes that the black body is not continuous when absorbing and launching energy, but to be divided into "one copy", there is a basic energy unit there.

This unit, he is called "quantum", which is described by the Planck constant H. If we start from the equation of Planck, we can easily derive a "quantum" of a particular radiation frequency contains how much energy, the final formula is simple and clear: E = hν, where E is energy, H is a Planck constant Ν is the frequency. Even elementary school students can use this simple formula to do some calculations. For example, the corresponding quantum energy is the radiation of 15th of the frequency of 10, how is the corresponding quantum energy? Then simply multiply the 10 ^ 15 with H = 6.6 × 10 ^ -34, and the result is equal to 6.6 × 10 ^ -19 Joule. This value is small, so we will never be aware of non-consecutive existence. Einstein reads the papers that have been mostly authoritative and his own cold to the corner. With a deep intuition, he feels that for light, quantization is also an inevitable choice. Although there is a good Maxwell theory tall, Einstein is not in turn, there is no stopping. On the contrary, he believes that the theory of Mai's theory can only be effective for a average, and the Maxwell is contradictory for the launch of instantaneous energy, absorption, etc. From the photoelectric effect, it is already possible to see Ni came. Let us relive the uncoordination of photoelectric effects and electromagnetic theory: electromagnetic theory believes that light as a fluctuation, its strength represents its energy, and the intensity of enhanced light should be able to hit higher energy. Electron. However, the experiment shows that the intensity of increasing light can only hit more electrons without increasing the energy of electrons. To hit the electron with higher energy, it must improve the frequency of the illumination light. Improve the frequency and improve the frequency. Einstein suddenly flashed, e = hν, improved frequency, does not increase the energy of a single quantum? Higher energy quantum can hit higher energy electrons, and improve the intensity of light, just increasing the quantum, the corresponding result is to combat more quantity of electrons. Everything is sudden, it seems to be sympathy. Einstein wrote: "... According to this assumption, the light from the light from a point is spread in the continuous space of the space, but is limited, limited to space by some numbers. "Energy Quanta) of" Energy Quanta) in a certain location is indivisible, which can only be absorbed or transmitted in whole. "This smallest basic unit, Ai, which makes up the energy of the light. Stan later called "light quanta). It has been in 1926, and the American physicist Lewis (G.n.lewis) replaced it into a commonly used noun, called "Photon". Everything is very simple and easy to understand from the angle of light quantum. The frequency of higher frequency, such as ultraviolet light, its single quantum is more than frequency light contains higher energy (E = hν), so when its quantum acts to the metal surface, it can excite more Dynamic energy is electronically. The amount of energy and the intensity of the rays are not related, and the glare only contains more amounts of light quantum, so it is possible to inspire more quantity of electron. But for low frequencies, each quantum is not enough to excite electronics, then, with more light quantity, it is not helpful. We imagine the photoelectric effect into a auction with a high entry fee. Each quantum is a customer, the energy it carries is equivalent to the funds owned by a person. To enter the auction site, everyone must pay a certain number of admission fees, and in the venue, one can only buy one item.

When a light quantum is blown into the metal surface, if it is enough (high energy enough), it is eligible to enter the auction site (which can hit out of the electronic). As for it, it is possible to buy more items (excited more high-energy electrons), it depends on how much money remains after it pays for the admission fee (how much energy remains). The higher the frequency, the more money, the more money, like the big violence such as UV, can also buy very expensive goods after easy payment, and the rays with a low frequency are not so broad. However, how many people have, this is nothing to do with a "delegation". How many things can be bought, this only has a relationship with the "delegation" (the intensity of light), and how much is there any money (the frequency of light). If I have a delegation of 500 people, everyone has enough money to enter, then I can buy 500 samples back, and you can have money alone, you can only buy the same thing (because of a person Can only buy the same item, the rule is like this). As for what I bought, it is another thing. When you come back, if you have too little money in a delegation, you can't afford to admit, you can't buy anything else, and you can't buy it. Because the rule is you can only The identity admission, there is no continuousness and accumulation, and everyone's money cannot be used together. Einstein derived equation and our auction is one meaning: 1/2 mv ^ 2 = hν- p 1/2 mv ^ 2 is to inspire the maximum kinetic energy of the electronic, that is, what we said, can buy "more Good "goods. Hν is the energy of a single quantum, that is, how much is your total? P is the minimum energy required to excite the electron, that is, "admission fee". So this equation tells us that it is actually very simple: you can buy more goods depend on your total funds to lose your expense. The key hypothesis is: Light absorb energy in the form of quantum, no continuity, and cannot accumulate. A quantum excited a corresponding electron. The instantaneous problem of the effect revealed by the experiment was also solved: the quantum effect is the instantaneous role, there is no accumulation. However, what did you smell from this? What is the light quantum, photon, and light? Isn't we clearly conclusively, is it a kind of fluctuation? What is the concept of light quantum? It seems that the history is back to the starting point after the history is turned into a circle. Regarding the nature of light, Jong Ge will then start, "The Third Microwave War" is hit. This time, the consequences resulting in a comprehensive world war, the sky is covered, and everything will be reborn after destruction. ******** After meals, gossip: Miracle Year If you stand in a relatively high perspective, everything is followed by a specific trajectory, there is no uncommon development. The hero of the tide in the waves of the Times is actually suitable for the basic requirements of that era, which has received the glory of them. However, if standing in Lushan, put our gaze into the specific scenario, we can understand the glory and progress of a great person as the era. Although it can't be said that these great characters, human development will go to astray, but they cannot deny that heroes and genius have made great contributions to the world. This is the case in the history of science.

The entire scientific history can be said to be a splendid Galaxy with a genius name, and a few special bright stars, the rays they have passed through the entire universe, and they have arrived at the end of time and space. Their wisdom has emitted so much brilliant during a certain period and is amazing. From now until today, we can't find a more suitable words to describe, but only the name "miracle". Two years in the history of the scientific history, it is in line with the title of "miracle", and they are connected to the names of the two genius. These two years were 1666 and 1905, and the two geniuses were Newton and Einstein. In 1666, the 23-year-old Newton returned to the country's hometown holiday in order to avoid the plague. That day, he broke a few open work independently, including invented the fractal (flow), completed the experimental analysis of light decomposition, and the groundbreaking work of the extraction. In that year, he made the foundation for mathematics, mechanics and optical three universities, and any of them, it is enough to listen to the greatest scientists in history. It's hard to imagine, why do a person's thinking can surging so many inspiration in such a short period of time, people can only use a Latino Annus Mirabilis to express this year, that is, "Miracle Year" (of course, some people will The argument said that 1667 is actually a miracle year). This is also true of Einstein in 1905. He published 6 papers in this year in the patent office. On March 18, it was an article on the photoelectric effect mentioned above, which became one of the foundation of the quantum. On April 30, the paper on measuring molecular sizes was published, which has won a doctorate. On May 11th and later December 19, two papers about Brown movement became a milestone of molecular theory. On June 30th, the paper issued on "Electricodynamics" on the moving object ", this inconspicuous topic was later plus a name," narrow relativism ", it doesn't have to say more. On September 27th, the relationship between object inertia and energy is further explained by narrow relativism, and the famous quality equation E = MC2 is proposed. The work of this year is at least 3 Nobel Prize. Whether the meaning of relativity is the Nobel Prize, it is difficult to say. And all this is just in the office of the Patent Office, one person is done with paper and pen. It is really hard to imagine that such a miracle will still happen again, because it is too incredible. Today, in science, today, it has not been imagined, and a person can make such a huge contribution in such a short time. 100 years ago, Pangola has been known as the "last full talent" of the math, and Einstein's relativity may be the theory of the last personal heroic legendary color? Is this our luck, still unfortunate? __________________

Chapter 13 Three last time, Einstein proposed the hypothesis of the light quantum, used to explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic theory in the photoelectric effect. However, the concept of light quantum makes other scientists feel unincomplicated. Is the problem that the light is not already qualitative? Isn't it that it has been included in the Maxwell theory, is it clear as an electromagnetic wave? What is this light quantum? In fact, light quantum is a very bold assumption that it is directly challenged to the classic physical system. Einstein himself also realized this, in his view, this is the most rebellious papers. In the letter written to the friend Habicht, Einstein describes the four papers in his essay. Only in the light quantum, he used the words "very revolution", and even relatively Such a description. Light quantum and traditional electromagnetic fluctuation image appear inconspic, it is actually a turning version of the past particles, assuming that light is discrete, consisting of a small basic unit. From Tomas Yang's era, it has passed for a hundred years, and the heroic circulation, the overlord that was defeated in the ground was again on the stage with rebellious gesture, and said to the volatility of the throne. The opponents destined in these two hits are finally going to conduct a final decisive battle, thus comprehend the ultimate meaning: If you don't have you, I stand here alone, what is it for? However, the situation of light quantum and the fluctuations of the uprising of the year are very difficult and not acceptable. Wave the status of today, even far more than 100 years ago, the micro-downs under the Newtonia ring. The wave of fluctuations is from Maxwin, and there is a whole electromagnetic kingdom as the alliance. This decision is no longer limited to light of light from the beginning, but the nature of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. And we will soon see, after more than ten years, the war will be expanded, and the entire physical world will be involved in it, thus forming a veritable world war. At that time, for the attitude of light quantum, Einstein himself was very cautious, and it didn't have to say that the respectable old science gentlemen. On the one hand, this is incompatible with the classic electromagnetic image; on the other hand, the experiment regarding the photoelectric effect at the time, no correctness of the light quantum is very clear. The Jedi counterattack in the microparticles has been truly attracting people in 1915, and the cause is also very ironic: the American Missile (Ramillikan) wants to confirm that the light quantum image is wrong, but repeated multiple times After experimenting, he ridiculously discovered that he had confirmed the correctness of Einstein equation very much. Experimental data is quite persuasive display. In all cases, the photoelectric phenomenon exhibits quantizic characteristics, not the opposite. If the experiment of the Misigen is just a successful success of the microparticle revolutionary army, its significance is not enough to convince all physicists, then in 1923, Chahcompton led the army to achieve a decisive. The victory, the amazing power they hidden, and there is no one. After this one, no one doubts, got up to fight the classic wave empire, it turned out to be a regular army that was not up and down. The battlefield of this battle is the region of X-rays. In studying X-rays, the X-ray found a strange phenomenon: scattered X-rays were divided into two parts, part of the original incident ray wavelength, while the other part was longer than the original ray wavelength The specific size and scattering angles have a functional relationship. If the usual fluctuation theory is used, scattering should not change the wavelength of the incident light.

But how do you explain how much the part of the wavelength grows? Compton is bitter, trying to find an answer from the classic theory, but hit the head of the blood. Finally, one day, he made a decision of the boat, introduced the hypothesis of the light quantum, regarding the X-rays as a collection of the photon bundle of the energy Hν. This assumption immediately made him see the dawn, and suddenly turned out in front of him: the ray of the part of the wavelength becomes because the photon and electronics collisions were caused. Like like a normal small ball, not only has energy, but also has a impulsive, and it is partially exchanged to electrons. Such a decrease in the energy of the photons, according to the formula E = hν, and the decrease in E decline, the frequency is small, the wavelength is large, OVER. The relationship between wavelength changes and scattering angles is derived on the basis of particles, and the experiment is meticulous. This is an extremely beautiful annihilation battle, and the power of fluctuations has not been paid in the opportunity for any counterattack. Constanton is summarized: "Now, almost no longer use the Lonen ray (Note: That is, X-rays) is a quantum phenomenon ... Experiment convincingly indicated that the radiation quantum has not only energy but also has a certain direction. "God creates light, Einstein pointed out what is light, and Compton, the first one in the true sense" see "this light. The "Third Microwave War" has completely built. The micro-colonal of the coils is equipped with the most advanced weapons: photoelectric effects and Compton effects. The two cannons are extremely powerful, and the wave defenders are difficult to resist, and they have been defeated. However, the position of the military and the inception of the military in the past 100 years is not so easy to break through, the Maxwell Theory and the strong postal aid of the entire classic physics system make them still in the unbeaten. The welfare supporters quickly realize that they can't retreat again, because they are Moscow! The full disappearance of fluctuating theory will mean the crash of the Maxwell electromagnetic system, but at least now, the ambitious plan of the particles is still difficult to achieve. After the fluctuations have stabilized the foot, quickly re-evaluate their strength. Although it does not work on photoelectric problems, it is still no rust and failure of those ace weapons, still have strong killings. Although the rejuvenation of the particles is rapid, it is a lack of depth, and it does not even rely on the arms that have been seized from fluctuations. For example, the photoelectric effect we have seen is involved in the verification of the light quantum theory involves the determination of frequency and wavelength, but this still has to achieve the interference phenomenon of light. The Father of Wave the Lifang, Yang, his spirit is so great, so that he is still fluctuating the war flag after a hundred years, shocking everything against power. In each middle school laboratory, the light through the two slits is still not inappropriate to show the interference stripes between the darkness, and it is not suspicious to indicate his volatility to the world. Although Fresnel's papers have been covered in dust in the library, anyone can repeat his experiments to confirm the presence of Poisson's bright spot. Maxvefang's Emotional Equation is still predicting every day, and electromagnetic waves are still moving in accordance with his prophecy 300,000 kilometers per second speed, which is not fast, and there is no slowness. The battle will soon fall into the stalemate, both sides are in the position of their own hands-on, who is unable to occupy each other's site. The photons are caught in the swamp, which is awkward and cannot be self-extricted; the radio into the jungle of the photoelectric electricity has also become confused and not known. Particles or waves? In the 20th century of human civilization, it has no hand to the oldest phenomenon in the universe. However, here, we have twisted two heads. First let the microparticles and fluctuations these two military strikes, we jump out of the world of light and electromagnetic waves, go back to see how the quantum is how to affected the actual material - atomic nucleus.

The princes from Denmark debut, on his head, a big fire flow star crossed this cloudy sky, although it was just a flash, but ignited the original fire on the ground, illuminated the boundless darkness.

Chapter 14, September 1911, 26-year-old Niels Bolu, through the English British Strait, embarking on the land of the British Island. Young Boho will not think that after 32 years, he has to come again to this island, but it is hidden in a mosquito bomber, and the test of high-altitude hypoxia is throwing. The risks of the big harmony have arrived at the destination after nine deaths. That time, Yucurir prime minister personally signed a command, transferring the Atomic Physics in the hands of the Nazi, enabling the Allies to successfully weaken the advantages of Germany in the competition of the atomic bomb. This also became the most legendary color in Boli, which is a story of the people. Of course, in 1911, Boir is just a long-term wish and dream, but it is a obscured youth. He walked in the campus of the Cambridge, imagined that Newton and Maxwell came here, and rejoiced like a child. After the grassland stood, Boir did the first thing to visit the famous JJ Thomson, the latter is the famous physicist, the head, electronics of Cavalli laboratory. The discoverer, the Nobel Prize winner. J.J. Receive Bohr very enthusiastic, although Boir's English is like, the two still talk about a long time. J.J. Close the papers of Boce and put it on your desk. Everything seems to be very smooth, but poor Nilles does not know, in this point of disregistry, Tomson is "bad". In fact, Bohr's paper has been idle on the table, J.J. I have never seen a word. Cambridge is really exciting place for Bohr, and his Project is not very smooth. All in all, in the days to the Cambridge, in addition to the big one in a football team, there seems to be nothing to make Bohr think it is worth mentioning. Under disappointment, Bohr decided to seek some changes, he turned his eyes to Manchester. Compared with the cambridge, Manchester's contaminated sky does not seem to have no attraction, but for a physics, there is a name flashing: Eneste Rutherford. To put it, Rutherford is also a student of J.J. Thomson. This scientist who originated from the New Zealand has maintained the diligent style of the farmers. It is always the help and concern to his assistants and students, and provide the help of all your strength. Besides, Bohl chooses to be just right, but in 1912, it was a dawn of a dawn, and a new page of science was written. People have already standed on the threshold of the mysterious internal world of the atomic, only such as Bohl came out of this decision. This story has to start from the past century. In 1897, J.J. Tomson found the existence of electrons in the atoms when studying cathode rays. This broke the "atomic inertile" concept from ancient Greeks, which clearly show people: Atom can continue to be divided, it has its own internal structure. So, what is this structure? Tomson lacked experimental evidence at the time, he quickly made his imagination, outlined such a picture: atomic shaped, with positive charge. With negatively charged electrons, one grain "inlaid" is on this round. Such a picture, that is, the "raisins of the raisins" model, which is the same as the raisins on the pudding. However, in 1910, Rutherford and students conducted an experiment of a famous history in his laboratory. They bombard a very thin gold foil with α particles (with positively helium), and wanted to confirm the size and nature of the "raisin Bring" by scattering.

However, extremely incredible situations: There is a large number of scattering angles of a few α particles so that more than 90 degrees. For this situation, Rutherford has described very image: "This is like you bombard with a 15-inch shell, and the shell is rebounded back, but hit yourself." Lutherford carried forward the excellent character of the Aristotle's senior "I love my teacher, but I loved the truth", decided to modify Tomson's raisins. He realized that α particles were rebounded back, it must be because they have collided with some extremely hard core in the gold foil atom. This core should be positively charged, and most of the quality of the atom is concentrated. However, only a few part of the alpha particles have a large angle scattering this situation, the center occupied place is small, no one in the radius of the atomic radius. As a result, Rutherford issued his new model in the following year (1911). Among the atomic images he described, there is a "nuclear" "atomic nucleus" in the center of the atom. In the surroundment of this nucleus, electrons with negative electricity run around it along a particular orbit. This is like a planet system (such as the solar system), so this model is considered as "planet system" model. Here, the atomic nucleus is like our sun, and electron is a planet running around the sun. However, this seemingly perfect model has a serious difficulty that it is difficult to overcome. Because physicists soon pointed out that the negative electrical electron is operated around the positively charged atomic core, this system is unstable. A strong electromagnetic radiation is radiated between the two, resulting in a little loss of its energy. As the price, it has to gradually shrink the radius of operation until the final "crash" is in the nuclear nuclear, and the whole process is not a blink of an eye. In other words, even if the world is as described by Rutherfu, it will be destroyed between the transsthesis because the atomic itself has been ruined. The nucleus and electrons will inevitably discharge radiation and mutually neutralize, and then turn Rutherford and his laboratory, and even the entire English, the whole earth, the entire universe becomes a group of chaos. However, of course, although the theorists have sent a predict that the Chinese horrible, the sun still rises on time every day, everyone is active. Electronics are still happy around atoms, there is no sign of energy. Denmark's young people Neilles Boore have safely arrived in Manchester, and began to write a Huacai chapter in his physical history. Boir does not give up this theory because of the difficulties of the Rutherford model, after all, it has strong support for α particle scattering experiment. In contrast, Bohr's ability to electromagnetic theory can be used as a level that has never been involved in the atom, and it is a considerable doubt. Manchester's life is obviously much more comfortable than the Cambridge, although he and the character of Luserford are so different, the latter is an acute child, always strong, and his Boir is like a shy big boy, saying a sentence Everything is unclear. However, they are obviously a wonderful team, and Bohr's genius is fully excited under the leadership of the boss of Luserford, soon, it will arouse spectacular waves in history. In July 1912, Bohore completed his first papers in atomic structure, and historians later referred to it as "Manchester Memorandum". Boir has begun to combine the concept of quantum into the Rutherford model to solve the problem that classic electromagnetic mechanics cannot explain. However, everything is just just beginning, there is no in the virgin of the past, Boore can only explore step by step. No one told him where the direction should be, and his motivation is just a great enthusiasm for the ruthe model.

Bohr did not know about the problem of atomic spectroscopy. Of course, it could not see it later for the decisive significance of atomic research. However, the direction of the revolution has been determined, and there is no change to change the quantity of the quantity. This is the fact. A line of micro light appeared in the sky of the concentrated cloud. Although it proves, it is just a meteor, but this is undoubtedly injects a new vitality into the physical world that has stiff and aging, a new breath and hopes. This shining lights the torch in people, guiding them to find real eternal light. Finally, on July 24, Bohore completed his study in the UK and returned to the motherland Denmark. There, his lovely fiancee Margaret is anxiously waiting for him, and the future of physics will be open to him. Before leaving, Bohr handed his thesis to Rutherford and got eager encouragement. However, if Rutherford did you think, what will this youth change people to change people's ultimate views on the world? Yes, yes, the time has arrived. The great trilog is about to come, and the times really belong to the quantum have finally come. ******** After the meal, gossip: Nobel Prize winner's kindergarten Rutherford himself is a great physicist, which is not necessarily required. But he is also a great physics tutor. He discovers people's genius with a keen vision, and cares for them with great personality and excavates their potential. Those helpers and students around Rutherford, most of them have fallen very well, including many scientific masters. We are familiar with Niels Bol, one of the most great physicists in the 20th century, 1922 Nobel Physical Prize winners, the founder and symbol of quantum theory. Follow Lutherford in Manchester. One of Paul Dirac, the founder of quantum theory, the same great scientist, 1933 Nobel Physical Award winner. His main achievements are made in Cambridge Ca Wendi Laboratory (then Luserford took the director of J. J. Thomson became this laboratory). When Dirac was awarded, he was only 31 years old. He said that he didn't want to lead this award for Luserfu because he hated a reputation in the public. Rutherford persuaded that if you don't receive the award, then this name can be loud. Neuser's discovery, James Chadwick, in Manchester, in the laboratory of Rutherford. He won the Nobel Physical Award in 1935. Brett (Patrick M. S. Blacket) resigned from the captain of the Navy after a war, and entered the Cambridge to learn physics. He later improved the Wilson Cloud Room and made a huge contribution to the cosmic and nuclear physics, and won the 1948 Nobel Physical Award. In 1932, Walton (E.T. Swalton) and Cokefcroft built a powerful accelerator in Cavalli Laboratory in Rutherford, and to study the internal structure of the nuclear nucleus. The two of the two Luserfu disciples shared Nobel Physics Bonus in 1951. The list can continue to open, and it has been unbearable: Frederick Soddy, 1921 Nobel Chemical Award. Sweden Georg Von Heves, 1943 Nobel Chemistry Award. Otto Hahn, 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award. British Powell, 1950 Nobel Physics Award.

Hans Bethe, 1967 Nobel Physics Award. Soviet Capi (P.L.kapitsa), 1978 Nobel Chemistry Award. In addition to some Case slightly alienated, Lutherford has trained at least 10 Nobel Prize winners (not herself yourself). Of course, there are some no new prizes in his student, but the same excellent name, such as Hans Geiger (Hans Geiger, later invented the Garden Counter), Henry Moss (Henry Mosley, a young man who is known as an infinite genius, but unfortunately on the battlefield of a battle), Enest Masden (Ernest Marsden, he and Gai Leather did α particle scattering experiment, later Jazz) ... Wait, and so on. Luserford's laboratory is called "Nobel Prize winner's kindergarten". His avatar appeared in the biggest face value of New Zealand currency - 100 yuan, as the country's most remarkable respect and commemoration.

Chapter 15 Five From August 1, 1912, Boir and Margaret got married from a small town not far from Brother Khagen, and then they went to the UK to launch honeymoon. Of course, there is a person who can't forget to visit, that is, one of the best friends of Bolu family, Professor of Rutherford. Although it is in honeymoon, the atom and quantum of the scene still has disappeared from Boir's mind. He and Luserford have once again exchanged views and deepened their beliefs. After returning to Denmark, he put it in this work with two hundred percent. Uncover the mystery inside the atom, this dream has too much temptation, and Boir is completely unable to resist. In order to make everyone following our historical pace, we still describe the situation in Boirs. Luserford's experiment demonstrated a new atomic appearance: there is a dense core at the center of the atom, and electron is run around the center, like a planet around the sun. However, this model faces serious theoretical difficulties, because the classic electromagnetic theory predicts, such systems will inevitably release radiation energy and ultimately lead to the crash of the system. In other words, Rutherford's atom is impossible to stably exist for more than 1 second. Boirs face choices, or give up the Rutherford model, or give up Maxwell and his great theory. Bohr courage chose to give up the latter. He predicts in a deep insight, at the level of atoms, the classic theory will no longer be established, the new revolutionary thinking must be introduced, this thought is the quantum of Prance and his h constant. It should be said that this is a fairly difficult task. How to overthrow the Mai's theory is also the second, the key is that the new theory must be able to explain all the behavior of the atom. Boir is in the year of Copenhagen, the elementary rhythm of Magines has been found for a long time, and the chemical bond theory has also been firmly established. There are signs that there is a potential law to support their behavior inside the atomic law and form a particular model. The Atomic world is like a pyramid of infinite treasure, but how to find the channel that enters its internal, it is a problem that makes people scratch. However, like Bellzi, Ball, also has an explorer's most valuable quality: insight and intuition, which makes him catch the inconsistency, but it is the only one. The clue is there to open the door to the new world. At the beginning of 1913, the young Danish Hansen asked Boce, how to explain the spectral line problem of atoms in his quantified atomic model. For this problem, Boir did not think too much before, atomic spectrum is unfamiliar with him, thousands of spectrum lines and strange effects in him seems too messy, and it seems that I can't get from it. useful information. However, Hansen told Boce, which is actually regular, such as Baltiend's formula. He urged Bol to care about the work of Baltiend. Suddenly, like Ion (ION) found the burlap in the box, all of them suddenly turned over. Mountain darkly, vista. Nothing did not think of, the quantum got a decisive breakthrough. In 1954, Boore recalled: When I saw the formula of Bald, everything was clear. To review the development of spectroscopy from the head, we have to start with great life and Kirhof, and that is bound to a large-scale text. In view of the space, we only need to learn about this background knowledge, because this historical says have not intended to describe all the ways without a breakdown.

In summary, people who have already known that any element releases light containing specific wavelengths when he is heated. For example, we know that the sodium salt is radially yellow, and the potassium salt is purple. Lithium is red, copper is green ... and more. These lights are projected onto the screen by a splitter to obtain a spectral line. Various elements are in a list of spectra: sodium is always manifested as a pair of yellow lines, lithium produces a bright red line and a darker orange line, and potassium is a purple line. All in all, any element produces a specific unique line. However, what laws are present and why these rules have these rules, but it is a big problem. Let's take a hydrosiveline line, which is the simplest atomic line. It is presented as a set of line segments, and each line represents a specific wavelength. For example, in the visible optical range, the spectral line of the hydrogen atom is: 656, 484, 434, 410, 397, 388, 383, 380 ... nano. These data is undoubtedly not messy, 1885, Johann Balmer, a mathematics teacher in Switzerland, and summarizes a formula to represent the relationship between these wavelengths, which is the famous Barmine formula. The original form is slightly changed, and the countdown of wavelength is used, it looks more simple to clear: ν = r (1/2 ^ 2 - 1 / n ^ 2) where R is a constant, called Reedber (Rydberg) constant, n is a positive integer (3, 4, 5 ..., etc.) greater than 2. It is a very useful experience formula for a long time. But no one can explain that the meaning behind this formula is, and how to derive it from the basic theory. But in Boir's eyes, this is undoubtedly a sunny day, it is like a spark, Ignite Boir inspiration, all the doubts becomes successful, Bohr knows, hidden in the atomic secret, finally I am smiling to him. Let's take a look at the Ba Ears formula, which uses a variable N, which is any positive integer greater than 2. n may be equal to 3, may be equal to 4, but cannot be equal to 3.5, which is undoubtedly a quantized expression. Bolbus deeply called a sigh of relief, his brain runs rapidly, atoms can only radiate the wavelength to comply with a certain quantum rule, what is the explanation? We recall the classic quantum formal format that is born from the Plank: E = hν. The frequency (wavelength) is a measure of energy, and the atom only releases radiation of a particular wavelength, indicating inside the atom, which can only absorb or emission energy at a specific amount. How can the atom absorb or release energy? This has already had a certain understanding, such as Stark (J.STARK), which is proposed, the spectral line is emitted by the electron moves between the positions of different potential energy, British Nikolson (JW Nicholson also has similar ideas. Boir is undoubtedly understanding of these work. A bold idea has emerged in Boir's brain: only the specific amount of energy can only be released inside, indicating that electrons can only be converted between a particular "potential energy position". That is, electrons can only operate in some "determined" tracks, these tracks must meet certain potential energy conditions, so that the electrons can only release the energy that meets the energy formulas in accordance with the Baudi formula. We can fight like this.

If you listen well in the middle school, you should know the conversion of potential energy. A person weighing 100 kilograms jumped from 1 meter-high steps, he / she would get the energy of 1000 joules, of course, these energy will convert kinetic energy when falling. But if this is the case, we know that a 100 kg of people jumped after a number of stages of the same height, and the energy of 1000 Joules was released. Then our height of each step What can you say? Obviously and direct calculation is that this person has fallen by 1 meter, which has a strict limit for our steps. If we are usually, we will admit that a step can have any height, completely look at the interested interest. But if we add our conditions, the height of each step is no longer arbitrary. We can assume that there is only one level step, then its height is 1 meter. Or this person has a total of two levels of steps, then the height of the step of each stage is 0.5 meters. If you jump 3 times, then each level is 1/3 m. If you are a spyware enthusiast, then you will speculate on the step high of 1/39 meters per level. But in any case, we can't get this conclusion, ie 0.6 meters high. The truth is obvious: the stairs of 0.6 meters does not meet our observations (1000 joulee energy is released). If there is only one step in one level, then the energy it brings is not enough. If there is two levels, then the total height reaches 1.2 meters, resulting in the release of energy exceeding the observation. If you want to meet our observations, you must assume that there is a total of one-third level step, which is undoubtedly ridiculous, because the children know that the steps can only have integer levels. Here, the number of steps "must" is an integer, which is our quantization conditions. This condition limits the height of the steps per level, or 1/2 m, but cannot be any number of this. The story of atoms and electrons is basically basic and this is similar. We still remember that in the Rutherford model, the electron like planets around the atomic core. When the electron is close to the nucleation, its energy is the lowest, it can be seen as a state in "flat". However, once the electron has achieved specific energy, it has achieved power, "climb" one or several steps to reach a new track. Of course, if there is no energy supplement, it will fall from the track of that height, returning to the "flat" state, while the original energy is released in the form of radiation. The key is that we now know that in this process, electrons can only release or absorb specific energy (given by the Baltiend formula of the spectrum), rather than continuous. Boir has made a reasonable inference: This means that the "step" climbed by the electronic, and they must meet certain height conditions, and they cannot be continuous as those assumptions like classic theories. Continuity is destroyed, and quantization conditions must be the master of atomic theory. We have to use quantum official E = hν once again, please also include you. Stephen Hawko said in the Acknowledgements of his bestseller "time simple history", inserting any mathematical formula is halved, so he considers the thirteen, only one formula E = MC2. Our historical book is a play, nor don't consider so much, but even if you list the formula, you will not force you to understand its mathematical significance. Only this e = hν, the author thinks it is necessary to clear its meaning, which is also good for the understanding of the overall history. From scientific sense, it will never be less than Einstein's E = MC2.

So still don't tire the description of this equation: E represents energy, H is the Planck constant, ν is the frequency. Back to the topic, Bohr is now clear, and the spectral line of the hydrogen atom represents the energy released from a specific step to another step. Since the observed spectral line is quantified, the "step" (or track) of electrons must also quite quantified, it cannot be used continuously, but must be divided into "bottom building", "first floor", "two Building ", etc. Just as a person can't be floated between the two-level steps. If the electron is now in the "three floor", its energy is represented by W3, then when this electronic sudden, decide to jump to the "first floor" (energy W1) period, it releases the energy of W3-W1. We ask everyone to remember that the formula once again plays, W3-w1 = hν. Therefore, the direct result of this move is that a line of a frequency is ν appears on the spectrum of the atom. All these ideas of Bolbo are transformed into theoretical derivation and mathematical expression, and finally published in the form of three papers. These three papers (or also said three parts of a big papers), named "On The Constitude Of Atoms and Molecules," Single Tree Nuclear System "(Systems Containing Only) A Single Nucleus and "Multiple Atomic System", from March and September 1913, Lucerford in Manchester, and is recommended by the latter "Philosophical" (Philosophical Magazine). This is the literature in the episode of the quantum physics, that is, great "trilogy". This is indeed a new era. If the history of quantum mechanics is divided into three parts, Prenke in 1900 declared the birth of quantum, then Boce in 1913 announced that it entered the youth era. A complete theoretical system about the quantum was first built, although we will see that this system still has a strong trace of old world, but its significance is not underestimated. The quantum is shocked by its power in the world. Although it is still half a sleep, although it is still in the old physics building, its roar has undoubted the whole old world to shake And shook the classic physical roots of the extended tones. The giant in myth has begun to wake up, those who are hidden in the ancient castles, trembling! (Chapter 3)

Chapter II Bai Yunxia should be said that Bohr's new theory of the atomic structure is not very popular with physicists. This theory, in the eyes of some people, actually have a arrogant intention of overthrowing the Maxwell system, it is a big reverse. Sir Rielei (one of the researchers of the Rayleigh-Kings line mentioned earlier) is completely unlike interest, J. J. Thomson, Boho's tutor in Cambridge, refused to comment on this. Other people who are not so dehisle, such as a physicist announced in the class: "If you use quantum mechanics to explain, then I will not explain." Other people claim, if The quantum model is actually true, they have exported the physics community since then. Even those who are open, such as Einstein and Bonn, I found that it was completely accepting this theory too barely. But the strength of the quantum is exceeded by anyone. Victory is so fast, and Bool is almost unknown. First, Boir's derivation is completely compliant with the hydrogen atom spectrum described in the Ba'ard formula, and from the W2-W1 = Hν, we can pour the expression of the ν, thus and the original formula ν = r (1/2 ^ 2 - 1 / n ^ 2) comparison, calculate the theoretical value of the Rickeling constant R. In fact, the prophecy and experimental values ​​of Bohr theory have only different differences, which undoubtedly makes his theoretical suddenly have a solid foundation. Not only that, Bohr's model is more predicted to some new lines, these prophesies are quickly confirmed by experimental physicists. In the controversy of the so-called "Picken Line Series, Boore has achieved decisive victory with strong evidence. His atomic system accurately illustrates some of the splash of helium ions, accuracy compared to the old equation, which has achieved amazing point. Henry Moss (the young genius we mentioned earlier, but unfortunately the place to die on the battlefield, further confirmed the correctness of the nucleation model of the atomic nucleation model. People now know that the chemical properties of atoms depends on its nuclear charge, not the traditionally considered atomic quantity. Based on the electronic shell model of Bolbo theory, it will also develop step by step. Only a few small difficulties need to be solved, such as people find that the spectrum of the hydrogen atom is not a line, but can be split into many lines. These effects become more quirky and obvious under the electromagnetic field (regarding these phenomena, people with so-called "Stark Effect" and "Seman Effect"). However, the Boir system will soon be a strong actions, and some scientists who have a more degree of freedom (quantum) of Einstein and the assumptions of the Einstein and other scientists, such as Some scientists. T.Sommerfeld proves that all of these phenomena can be smoothly inclusive within the quantum system of Boir. Although the cruel World War has been burst, this is not blocked by the great pace of science in that period. Every day, new reports and experimental evidence are like snowflakes to Boirs' work desk. Almost every report further confirms the correctness of the Buna quantum model. Of course, along with these reports, there is also a congratulatory, social invitation, and a variety of universities from all walks of life. Burul has become a leader in atomic physics. For the sense of responsibility against the motherland, he refused Lu Hutford to introduce him in Manchester's position, although it is undoubtedly a better choice for financial or academic saying. Bolbo is now a professor at the University of Copenhagen, and decided to build a specialized study, so it used to use further research in theoretical physics.

This research institute, as we will see later, it will become an eye-catching pearl, which will attract the best young people in Europe to get the gathering and empty the brilliance. Here, we may also ask some basic features of the Boir model. It is basically a continuation of the Rutherford planet model, but in the Boir model, a series of quantization conditions are introduced, making this system with distinct quantization characteristics. First, Bol is counter-up, and electrons can only be in some "specific" energy states when they run around the atomic core. These energy status are discontinuous, called a status. You can have E1, you can have E2, but you can't take any values ​​between E1 and E2. As we have already described, the electron can only be in a dilactom, there is no buffer zone between the two stations, there is an electronic penalty area, and electrons cannot appear there. However, Bohr allows electrons to convert between different energy states, or, transition. Electronics from E2 state transition to E1 in E1, radiate E2-E1 energy, and these energy is released in radiation, according to our basic formula, we know that the frequency of this radiation is ν, thus making E2-E1 = hν. Conversely, when electrons absorb energy, it can also climb from a state of energy to a high energy state, its relationship is also in line with our formula. We must pay attention to this energy transition is a quantized behavior. If the electron is transitioned from E2 to E1, this does not mean that electrons have experienced any state between E2 and E1 energy in this process. If you still feel confused, that means that the continuity of the ghost is still hovering in your mind. In fact, the quantum is like a superb magician, it is smiling at one end of the stage and waving his hat and appears on the other side of the stage. And at any time, it has not passed the central part of the stage! Each possible level of energy represents an electronic running track, which is like a satellite that is 500 kilometers away from the ground and 800 kilometers from the ground represents different potentials. When the electron is neither radiopa, it is stably moving on a track. When it absorbs a certain amount of energy, it disappears from the original track, and mysteriously appears on a higher energy that is far from the nucleus. Conversely, when it is desperately falling toward the nuclear drop, it emits its energy you searched on the high energy track. People quickly found that an atomic chemistry mainly depends on its outermost electron number and thereby exhibits regular periodic. But people have also been confused, that is, for the heavy elements with numerous electrons, some of its electrons can take long-term electronic tracks without losing energy to low-level tracks near the nuclear nucleus. This question is made by young bubbles in 1925: he found that there is no two electrons to enjoy the same state, and the number of tracks can be inclusive, which is limited, that is, one The track has a certain capacity. When the electron fills a track, other electronic can no longer be added to this track. A atom is like a dormitory, and each room has a four-digit house number. There are only two rooms in the bottom floor, respectively, from 1001 and 1002, respectively. The second floor has 8 rooms, and the houses are 2001, 2002, 211, 21, 212, 2111, 2112, 2121 and 2122. The more high-rise buildings, the more the number of rooms. The temper is bubbled to post a check at the gate, announced that there is no two e-mail guests to stay at the same house.

Since the electronic, the electronic is rushing to the building into this building. The two first-come from the two-priced and honesty rooms, and later, because the bottom building has been full, they have to retreat, start to fill the second floor. s room. After the second floor is full, it is round to the third floor, four floors ... have been until the six-floor, seventh floor and eight floors of the rent-free lease. Unfortunately, the electronics in the height is not enough, but there is no way, because the downstairs is full of people, can't move away. They call the bubbles called "incompatible principles". However, this measure is indeed possible to better help people understand some basic conduct of "chemical society". For example, electronic things that like to be included always try to make every room in the building live full of guests. We envisage a "soda building", in its third floor, only one alone room guest live in 3001 room. At the third floor of adjacent "chlorine buildings", only one room is no one in the main (3122). Decided by the lonely direction of the lively, the loneliness of the sodium building was determined to move into the chlorine building to fill the blank room, and he was also warmly welcomed by the tenants. This move has also contributed to the network of two buildings, forming a "salt community". In some high-rise buildings, because there are too many empty rooms, you can't find enough loneliness to fill a floor, even if you only fill a wing (WING), the electronic is also satisfied. All of this is of course an image and general statement. The actual situation is much more complicated, such as the room in each floor is also divided into several levels because of the different facilities. The higher, the more you are not a general principle, such as a presidential suite in the sixth floor is likely to be much more expensive than the seventh floor. But this is not a problem, the key is that Boir's electronic track model is very persuasive to explain the nature and behavior of atoms. Its prophecy and experimental results basically kiss the silk. In less than two years, Bohr theory has achieved brilliant victory, and physicists around the world began to accept Boce models. Even our stubborn - refused to recognize the actual significance of the quantum - also began to re-examine the great discovery of the original. The achievements of Bohr theory are huge, and they are very deeply rooted, and he has won Nobel bonus in 1922. However, this still can't solve the profound contradiction between it and the old system. The Maxwell's equation may still be said that it still needs to release electromagnetic radiation around the atomic nuclear movement regardless of the success of the Boore orbit. It is deeply helpless to this Boir. He has no ability to overthrow the entire classic electromagnetic system. In a popular words, "the feudal residual power is still very powerful." As a compromise, Boir turning head attempts to adjust his atomic system and Mai's theory to establish a link between two theories. His hard figure proves to the world that both systems are correct, but they can only be established within their respective applications. When our eyes gradually expand from the atomic world to the usual world, the quantum effect gradually disappears, and the classic electromagnetic theory can replace H constant to become the world's dominance. In this process, whenever, there is a certain corresponding state in the two systems. This is his so-called "corresponding principle" published in 1918. The corresponding principle itself has a rich meaning until we have learned about us today. However, it is undeniable that this relationship with the classic system "昧" is a fatal innate shortage of Bohr theory. He guided a uncomfortable revolution, although there is an emergence of revolutionaries, but it will eventually rely on the support of traditional forces. The quantum of Boir can only rely on the strength of the classic system, and its self-consciousness is still deeply sleek and not awake. Of course, despite this, its achievements have caused the world to be amazed, but this does not avoid it soon, towards the long running light fall to the other side of the horizon, becoming a flashing meteor .

Of course, such a great sense is so short, this only explains one thing: Science in that day is not what we can imagine. That is a long-term, theoretical physics. Nowaday, only the breeze is only with the big river. ******** After meals, gossip: Atoms and galaxy Rutherford models are now known as "planet model" or "solar model". This is of course a visualty called, but it is undeniable that atoms have a very small system and the large system of the solar system. There is a lot of similarities. Both have a core, this core occupies slightly negligible volume (relatively related to the entire system), but has concentrated 99% of the quality and angular momentum. People can't help but think about it, is the atom itself is a "small universe"? Alternatively, our universe is composed of thousands of "small universities", and it is in turn to make a bigger "universe" with thousands of universe. This reminds William Blake, the famous little poem: To see a world in a grain of sand. * See the world from a sand and a heaven in a wild flower * from a flower Hold Infinity In the Palm of Your Hand * Grasping infinity with whene and whenties in an hour * Is it possible to "see the world from a sand"? The approval of the atom and the solar system cannot give us too much enlightenment, because the actual distance between the planets is relatively electronically, it is much more than (of course, it is proportional). However, some scientists recently proposed that the universe did in different scales, with amazing repetitive structures. For example, the ratio of atoms and silver rivers, the ratio of atoms and neutrons, they are all aspects, such as radius, cycle, vibration, etc. - a very similar place. If you enlarge a atom to zoom in 10 ^ 17 times, the nature it exhibits is similar to a white dwarf. If you enlarge 10 ^ 30 times, if it is believed, it is equivalent to a galaxy. Of course, it is not always equal to it, I mean, if the atomic system enlarges 10 ^ 30 times, its various mechanical and structural constants are very close to the Milky Way we observed. It is also proposed that atoms should be less than the solar system that is equally high in high energy. That is, atoms must be at very high excitation states (about hundreds of the number of major quantum reached a few hundred), then various structures are quite close to our solar system. This point of view, that is, the universe demonstrates similar structures at all levels, called the Fractal Universe model. In it, even if it is an atom, some information about the entire universe is a "holographic embryo" of a universe. The so-called "fractal" is a hunting topic study in chaotic kinetics. It shows us how complex structures are repeated over different levels. Whether the evolution of the universe is also complied with a certain chaotic kinetic principle. Now it is still not known, the so-called "fractal universe" is only a speck. Here is a fun story, and everyone is smiling.

When the two previously, Bohr Theory has brought brilliant brilliance to the entire dark physical sky, which makes people think of seeing the beauty of the world. Unfortunately, this false foam has not been able to continue too much. The old physics world has become sore under all kinds of impact, and the magnificent palace of the Bolbul atomic model can not resist a more violent revolutionary impact. In the chaos, they will be paid in the chaos, leaving only a broken wad disabled. We will hang us today. The initial rainstorm has passed, the earth is desolate, and the sky is still concentrated in the sky. The sun is like blood, shooting overcome in the sky, dying this ruins into a golden red, putting a more heavy atmosphere, indicating a bigger storm. The decline in the Bolster Dynasty seems to be destined in the day it is born. This theory, although borrowed the infinite force of newborn quantum, its basis is still built on a fragile old foundation. Quantizic thinking is just a mercenary in Bohr theory, it is more like being forced to attach it, not the starting point and foundation of the entire theory. For example, Bol is counter-up, electronic can only have quantified energy levels and tracks, but why? Why is the electronic must be quantified? What is its theoretical basis? Boir is unknown on this, and he is concerned about him. Of course, demanding experience will argue that electrons are quantified, because experimental observations are quantized, and no other reasons. But in any case, if a theory's basic publicity is not very stable, this theory's prospect is not so optimistic. In the attitude of TEAL quantum hypothesis, scientists undoubtedly thought of the fifth level of Ouri Germ (this axiology said that there is only one straight line and known straight lines. People later proven this axiology and Not very reliable). Undoubtedly, it is best to be exported from some more basic axioms, these more basic axioms should become the foundation of the entire theory, not just gorgeous decoration. Later historians always use the words "half-class", or "old bottled new wine", or "old bottled new wine". It is like a master, when the electron is operated around a single orbit, it exhibits classical mechanics faces, once the track changes, immediately turn to quantization. Although there is a strong support of the high-level principle, this two-faceted practice is also questioned. However, these problems are not the key. The key is that after obtaining a series of major victories, the Bohr Army finally found that he had arrived at the end of the strong, and there were some solid fortress, no matter how couldn't attack. For example, we have all known the problem of atomic line split, although the Boore model explains the Seman effect and the Stark effect under the field under the magnetic field. However, nature always has endache. The scientists have discovered a complex split of the line under the weak magnetic field, called "abnormal Seim Math". This phenomenon requires the number of quantums that introduce 1/2, and the theoretical pair of Boce is unable to help. This problem plasted many scientists, making them difficult to sleep. It is said that when visiting Bol family, I used to say a violent complaint to Bolf people: "I am of course not good! I can't understand the Anti-Morman effect!" This problem has been to bubble. After the incompatibility principle, it is finally solved. In addition, Bohr Theory is frustrated, and its strength is limited to only one electron atomic model. It is convincing that it is convincing for hydrogen atoms, hydrazine atoms, or ionized helium atoms. But for even the ordinary helium atoms with only two nuclear electrons, it has no power.

Even for an electron's atom, Bohr can be said, but it is only the frequency of the line, as for the intensity, width or polarization problem of the line, Boir can only shrug, with his big tongue The accent said sorry. On the battlefield of hydrogen molecules, Bohr theory also defeats. In order to solve all these difficulties, Bohr, Lande, Bubble, and Kramers and others have made a lot of efforts, introducing another new assumption, establishing a new model Some even violate the theory of Boir and Sony Sony. In 1923, Dr. Bohr theory that was barely operated was reluctant to solve the problem, and obtained people's universal agreement, it is already like a patch-filled robes, it needs to be fundamentally thoroughly changed. The goddess of Göttingen began to refuse this patch-tired system, hoping to seek a more powerful, perfect theory, thus putting the quantum's thoughts from essence into physics, with the beginning Such a living life. The fading of the Boir system is as prosperous. More and more people have begun to pay attention to the Atomic world and make more experimental observations. Every day, people can get new materials, stimulate their enthusiasm, and uncover the face of this mysterious kingdom. In Copenhagen and Göttingen, physical geniuses talk about atomic nucleus, electronics and quantum, and a manuscript full of formulas and letters carry inspiration and creativity, intertwined into a big era. Qingshan can't cover it, after all, the east flows. The pace of the times is so fast, so that the footsteps of Bolbol at the end are finally not from the heart, withdraw from the historical stage, disappearing in the long yellow dust, leaving only one name to let us feel the aftertaste. If the pioneering work of 1925-1926 Heisenberg and Schrodinger (Erwin Schrodinger) is regarded as a Bauzan's life, this theory is about 13 years. It makes people see the great significance of the quantum in the physical world and use its power to uncover the mysterious veil inside the atom. However, as we have seen, Bohr's revolution is an unpleasant revolution. The supplement of quantum is not fundamentally in his system, and it seems to be just a tune and classic theory and real contradiction. Bohr theory is not explained, why is the electron with discrete level and quantitative behavior, it is only known, but I don't know how it is. Boir takes a computest route between quantum theory and classic theory, which makes his atoms always collapse with a semi-new color, and ultimately crash because they cannot overcome difficulties. Boir's rail atoms like a dazzling fire flow star, radiopa, but rolled through the night sky between the blink of an eye, and fell to the dark and chaos. It is so insessing, so that people are still not coming to play a knot on the belt, so some beautiful desires. However, its great significance is not due to its short life. It is to dig out the strength of the quantum, paving the way for the future trail. It is the pre-consequence of it, which has effectively promoted the footsteps of the entire physics. The Boir model is still quite good, and some of its ideas are still known and learned from this person. Although the atomic picture of it depicts, although it is so imaged, it is still very vivid until today, it is still the standard style in the hearts of the public, and even represents scientific image. For example, we should be able to recall until the end of the 1980s, in China's streets, it can be seen everywhere, the graphic representing "science": three electrons run around the nucleus along the elliptical orbit. This pattern finally disappeared in the 1990s, and I want to finally realize the problem. Inside the Boir system, there has also been contradictory with randomness and determinism.

In terms of Bohr theory, how to determine when an automatic jump occurs when an electron occurs, it is more like a random process. In 1919, Bohr visited Berlin after the invitation of Prance. There, Planck and Einstein warmly received him, the three giants of quantum mechanics discussed several physical issues. Bohr believes that the transition of electrons in the track seems to be unpredictable, a spontaneous random process, at least in theory, there is no way to calculate an electronic specific transition condition. Einstein shakes his head and thinking that any physical process is determined and predictable. This has buried the seeds of the two last days. Of course, our respectable Niels Bohr will not withdraw from the physical stage because of the collapse of the old quantum. In contrast, the wonderful story about his is just beginning. He also wants to fight for a physics for a long time until the death. In September 1921, Boir was finally completed in Copenhagen, and 36-year-old Bohr became the director of this. His personality charm quickly attracted the talented young people in all parts of the magnetic field, and quickly turned here into an academic center in Europe. Georg Von Heade, Fisi frisch, Bubble, Heisenberg, Mott, Lang Du (George Gamov) ... people To here, you can fully feel the free atmosphere and Boir's care, and form a kind of academic spirit that is passionate, energetic, optimistic and advancing, which is the "Copenhagen Spirit" called the future. In the slumper, a small country, there has been a holy place in the eyes of the physics, which will far-reach the future of quantum mechanics, and our fundamental world view and thinking.

Sanbul's atom is still in the quagmire, and the new revolution is already brewing. This time, the revolutionary is not from the poor proletarian public, but comes from a promgratory aristocrat. Louis Victor Piva, Leon, Pierre Raymond de Broglie, will add a new glory to his glory family history. "Prince" (Prince, also translated into "son") This title is not what we usually understand is the son of the king. In fact, in the title table, its ranking is not high, and it doesn't seem to be in the English world. In general, its status is slightly lower than "Viscount), and is slightly higher than" Baron ". However, this is only because Louis is not boss at home, the history of Debroji family has a long history, his ancestors have made a lot of generals, marshal, minister, once loyal to Louis 14, Louis fifteen, Louis ten Sixth is trying to work. They participated in the War of Inheritance in Poland (1733-1735), the Austrian throne inheritance war (1740-1748), seven-year war (1756-1763), Independence War (1775-1782), French Revolution (1789), February Revolution (1848), I received Francis II (Francis II, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and later returned to the Austrian Emperor Francis I) and Louis Philippe, the King of the French, the monument of the Dukedom of Orleans) The book seal, the family inherits the highest level of attack: Duke (French DUC, equivalent to English Duke). Louis Debroe's brother, Morice de Broglie is the Duke of the Sixth Generation Debro. In 1960, when Morris died, Louis finally inherited this glorious title from his brother and became the seventh Duc de Broglie. Of course, before that, Louis is still a prince's title. Little Louis showed a strong interest in history. His grandfather, Jacques Victor Albert, Duc de Broglie, not only a politician, but also a French Prime Minister in 1873-1874, and it is also an excellent historian. Especially in the late Roman history, Histoire de l'église et de l'empire romain. Little Louis decided to enter the University of Paris at the University of Paris. At the age of 18 (1910), he graduated from college, but there was no more research in the field of history, because his interest has been strongly turned to physically. His brother, Morris Debroe (Duke of the Sixth Debuli) is a famous ray physicist, Louis followed the brother of 1911, Brussels physics meeting, his enthusiasm for science was completely Initially excited, and dedicate your life to this exciting career. Shortly after the introduction of the physics, the first World War broke out. Debroyi should be enrolled and assigned a radio technician's work. He is more fortunate than poor Henry Moss, and it is possible to have no injury after the war, and continue to enter the physics of his physics.

His doctoral tutor is a famous Paul Langevin. Writing here The author needs to stop making a little declaration. Our history tells the present, although I have reviewed some exciting revolution and new ideas that make people open their eyes (at least the author's hope), but in general, it is still in the classic world. And according to my impression, so far, our topics have not yet exceeded the scope of the physics textbooks and college entrance examinations. For ordinary readers, the only feeling is very unfamiliar, it may be just a quantum jumping idea. It is not a very difficult thing to accept this idea. However, after this, we will enter a full fantasy world. This world is unlikely, which is very different from our usual understanding. In this new world, all images and concepts are crazy and ignored, which is more like Alice's gratuit, rather than a solid land. Many nouns are so weird, so that only by means of mathematical tools can grasp their true meaning. Of course, the author will continue to express them in the most white language, but still need to remind you to prepare for mental preparation. For the convenience of the expression, I will try to make a statement, and then convert the topic. Although in history, all of this is covered, they are mixed together, and they can't make a head. In the following narrative, we may always jump in each year, and those readers who want to grasp the sense of time should pay attention to the exact era. We have already standing in the forefront of a great moment. New quantum mechanics will soon be created. This time, its power is completely blocked, so that all old things, including Boir that semi-new system, is destroyed Exhausted. It will soon unveil the curtain of a new world, this new world, even if it is slightly in the inside, and it is enough to make people halo, and the heart is shake. However, since we have already standing here, it will only be forwarded. So follow me, countless exciting things are waiting for us in front. Our topic returned to Debroyi. He has been thinking about how to naturally introduce one cycle concept in the Atomic model of Boir to meet the reality of observations. Originally, this condition is imposed on the quantization mode in the electronic, and the electronics is in the hard regulations of Boirs, although he is obedient, it is a bit less than a feeling. Debroe, is it time to liberate the electronic and let them do itself. How to give an electronics a basic nature, let them consciously exhibit all cycles and quantization phenomena? Deburi thought of Einstein and his relativity. He began to inject this: According to Einstein's famous equation, if the electron has the quality M, then it must have an intrinsic energy E = MC ^ 2. Ok, let's remember the quantum basic equation that I said, E = hν, that is, the corresponding energy, the electron will definitely has an intrinsic frequency. This frequency is calculated very simple because MC ^ 2 = E = hν, so ν = mc ^ 2 / h. it is good. Electronics have an internal frequency. So what is the frequency? It is a cycle of some vibration. Then we conclude that there are some things in electronics in vibration. What is the vibration? Debulli started his calculation with the help of relativity, and the results showed that when the electron moves in speed V0, it must be accompanied by a wave of c ^ 2 / v0, you have not heard it wrong. Electronics are always along with a wave.

Careful readers may have to issue questions because they find this wave of speed C ^ 2 / V0 will be much more faster than the speed of light, but this is not a problem. Debull demonstrates that this wave cannot carry the actual energy and information, so it does not violate the relativity. Einstein only said that there is no energy signal to pass over the speed of light, to Debrovole, he is a eye. Debulli put this call as "phase wave", and the future generations, in order to commemorate him, it also called "Debroyibo". Calculating the wavelength of this wave is easy, simply dividing the speed above its frequency, then we get: λ = (c ^ 2 / v0) / (mc ^ 2 / h) = h / mv0 . This is called Debroyi wavelength formula. But, wait, we seem to have not returned to God. We are talking about a "wave"! But our head is clearly discussing the problem of electronics, how suddenly, from the electronics, a wave? Where did it come out? I hope that everyone has not forgotten our poor fluctuations and microparticles, when Boir atm is prosperous and decline, they have been confrogably confronted, and they can't stale. In 1923, Debroyi was just before his phase wavy, it was exactly that Compton said with photons to explain the Kanton effect, led the microparticles soon. Unlucky particles had to give up the full offense, because they suddenly discovered that in the rear of the electronic, there was a genital fiction! And how can you hurry? Electronic is actually a wave! This is not impossible to feel too uncomfortable. The respectable Prance gentleman in front of these avant-garde, only to shook their heads, and they couldn't even say. If the whole world has only one person supports Debroyi, he is Einstein. Debroyi's tutor Lang Ren Wan Wan Hui's boldness of his disciples, for saving the good wishes of the lost youth, he handed the paper to Einsteown. Who is a highly evaluation of Izan, saying that Debroyi has unveiled a corner of the curtain. The entire physicological community was shocked after hearing Einstein, and it began to pay attention to the work of Debroyi. Evidence, we need evidence. All people speak in the same way. If the electron is a wave, let us see it is a wave. Give us its diffraction experiments to let us look, put interference graphics in front of our eyes. Debroyi is politely reveals: Yes, gentlemen, I will see evidence for you. I predict that the electrons generate a observable diffraction phenomenon like optical waves when passing a small hole. In April 1925, in the Bell Phone Laboratory of New York, New York, Davison (C. H. Davisson) and the Extraction (L. H. Germer) were doing an experiment relating to electronics. The purpose of this experiment is what we have to know, but it involves using a bunch of electronic flow bombarding a metal nickel. Experiments requires that the surface of the metal is absolutely pure, so Davison and the tensive end of the metal in a vacuum container to ensure that no magazine is mixed. Unfortunately, an accident occurred. This vacuum container exploded because of some reason, the air saved, and quickly oxidized the surface of nickel. Davidson and tensive years were very sad, but they did not give up the experiment, they decided, re-purify the metal surface and took the experiment from the head. At that time, the good way to remove the oxidation layer was to warm the metal, which is Davidison. The two don't know, as Athens is secretly pushing the vessels of the Algrao, the lucky goddess is standing behind him at this time.

The metal in the container has a unknown change in high temperatures: It was originally made up of many small crystals, and after heating, the whole nickel fused into a large crystal. Although it seems that both the two are not very different, the internal dramatic changes are sufficient to change the history of physics. When the electron passes through the nickel block, Davidon and the tensive tongue, I can't say it for a long time. They saw the familiar scene: X-ray diffraction pattern! However, there is no X-ray, only electrons, people finally discovered that in some cases, electrons exhibit a pure fluctuating in X-ray. Electronics is undoubtedly a wave. More evidence comes one after another. In 1927, G.P. Thomson, the famous J. J Thomson's son, further proved the volatility of electrons in Cambridge through experiments. He used the electronic behavior calculated by experimental data, and the anastomotic appetitable is seamless. The hit is destined, Davidson and Tomson will share the 1937 Nobel Prize, and Debroyi will win this honor before 8 years. Interestingly, GP Tomson's father, JJ Tomson won the Nobel Prize because of the discovered electronic particles, but he got the same honor because of proved electronics. History is sometimes rich in fun. ******** After the meal, gossip: Father, Nobel, said that there is no dog, and the descendants of the big scientists will often achieve the arrogant achievements of the predecessors. JJ Thomson's son GP Tomson overthrews the old dadian as the viewpoint of particles, proved the volatility of electrons, and also won the Nobel Prize. Such a hereditary scientific giants don't seem to be unique. Mrs. Curie and her husband Pierre? Come in 1903 shared the Nobel Prize (Mrs. Juri has a chemical award in 1911). Their daughter Joliot-Curie also shared the Nobel Chemical Award in 1935 with her husband. Another son-in-law of Mrs. Juri, US diplomatic Henry R. Labouisse, obtained the Nobel Peace Award in the Form of UNICEF in the 1965. In 1915, William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg had a highlighted contribution to the crystal structure by using X-rays and shared Nobel Physics Bonus. Our big name Ding Niels Bohore has won the 1922 Nobel Physical Award. His little son, Aage Bohr, won the same field in 1975. Karl Siegbahn and Kai Siegbahn have a Nobel Physical Award from 1924 and 1981, respectively. If the dad is a big scientist, what will I do? But I am afraid it is still like the rivers and lakes now, seeking unfettered life, huh, huh.

Four "Electronics are actually a wave!" This explosive news will soon spread throughout the volatility and the different camps of the particles. I have just rumored that the volatility of the focus of the Canton's campaign, and finally I can laugh at the head particles. The "Wave Daily" published an editorial and claims that he has achieved decisive victory. "The refurbishment forces of the particles will eventually encounter the shameful ending of them - the next example of electronics." The counterattack of photons, suddenly become worthless in the eyes of fluctuations, even the old brother of this brother is done, What are you afraid of small photons? However, this time, the optimistic attitude of fluctuation is not awesome, it is happy to be too early. The publicity of the microparticles is not idle. The "microparticle news" reporter interviewed Debroyi. As a result, Debulli said that today's radiation physics is divided into two views of particles and waves. These two views should be Some ways unity, rather than always sharp opposition - this is not conducive to the development prospects of theory. For particles, the proposal of the speech is naturally unacceptable, but at least make it happy that Debroyi did not explicitly biased the way. The technical staff of the particles also started counterattack, the light is the particle or the wave is still not clear, who dares to assert the electron is a wave? Let's take a look at the performance of the electronics in the Wilson cloud. The Wilson Cloud Room is an instrument in the British scientist Wilson (C. V. Wilson) in 1911. When water vapor is passed through the dust or ion, it will condense into a string of water beads, thereby forming a clearly distinct trajectory at the particles, just like the white fog left behind the jet in the sky. With the Wilson Cloud Room, we can study electronics and other particle collisions, and their performance is fully characterized by the rules of classic particles. In the past, this may be a matter of course, but now this evidence is precious for the Particle Army. Wilson shared Nobel bonus in 1927 and Compton in the cloud room. If the award-winning carnival in 1937 Davison and Tomson, the 10 years of this Nobel Awards are undoubtedly a ceremonial festival. However, at that time, the battle has been unexpected, with subtle changes. Of course, this is the later. The instrument that captures the electron position has long been there, and the electrons are on the induction screen, always inspiring a small highlight. Hey, the generals of microparticles say how to explain this? Even if it is an electronic composition diffraction pattern, it is still a highlight such that it is stacked. If electron is wave, then theoretical single electron can constitute the entire pattern, but it is only very bleak. However, it is apparent that the single electron can only form a single highlight, only a large number of electrons have gradually displayed a diffraction pattern. The part of the microparticle does not say him, worse, no matter whether the particles are fluctuations, they have not been able to get substantive benefits in the "Debrovole". The fluctuations are ridiculous, it is still on the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, etc., and the particulate is still unable to explain the double sewing interference. The two sides quickly discovered that the front is still the front of the front, no one can further, but the battlefield is expanded. Electronics are now pulled into this war for light nature, which makes war are fully upgraded. Now the problem is no longer just that the light is particles or waves. Now the problem is that the electron is particles or waves. You and me are particles or Wave, this whole material world is particle or wave. In fact, fluctuating this time for electronic attacks only more exciting the hearts of the particles. Now, photon, electron, α particles, more basic particles, they have decided to jointly fight against the sacred defense war of "big particles". This wave war has far exceeded the range of light, and the entire physical system is now in this debate, thus forming a veritable world war.

Bolbo tried to mediate the two armies in 1924, he and Kramers also have Sleter published a theory (called BSK theory), trying to go from the perspective of wave and particles. Interpret energy conversion, but both sides are playing red, this time the mediation has become a complete failure of diplomacy, soon he is vetoed by the experiment. War flames, burning all the inch of the physics, and also baked its future. Physics has already come to a crossroads. It is confused and confused, I don't know where to go. The classic brilliant brilliance has become broken, and everything is broken. Today's sky is concentrated, not sunshine, cast a shadow on the earth. People go next to the quantum of the elves, along the way, such as the vagina, the wonderful eyes, but now, suddenly, I have found that I am in the depths of the white clouds, and I don't know how to return. Looking at it, it is a mist to the fog, and I don't distinguish the northwest of southeast. Although Boore's buildings seem to be top-standing, the engineers who have a little in mind know that it has been a few papers, hurt the bones, rocking, but still supporting hard. What's more, this building is also attached to the old building of Maxwell with the corresponding principles, which teach people to have any hope for its future. On the other side, the microparticles and fluctuations are bonfire, no one, who can't make long-term wars have made physics's foundation on the edge of the collapse, and it doesn't even know what they are built. However, we don't have to be too pessimistic. Before the arrival of Dawn, it is always going to experience such a deep darkness, it is a great theoretical pain. When the big wind rises, when you blow all the fog, people will surprise, they have been standing on the high mountain peaks, and they are very eye-catching. The person led us through the fog, and later recalled: "From 1924 to 1925, we entered a concentrated cloud in terms of physical physics, but it was already able to see the micro-light, and looked out an exciting vision. "To say this is a young man from Germany, he is Werner Heisenberg. At the end of the Chapter 2 of this historical, we already know that Heisenborg was born in Würzburg in 1901, and his father later became a famous Greek professor. Xia Hesenburg was 9 years old. Their family moved to Munich, and his grandfather was in a school (called Maximilians Gymnasium) as a principal, and Heisenberg naturally entered this school study. Although it belongs to "Gao Di", Xiao Hemsenburg clearly does not have to achieve results with this relationship. His genius will soon be surprised, especially mathematics and physics, but he also also has religious, literature and Philosophy shows a strong interest. Such a versatile predicts that he will not only become an epoch-making physicist, and will also become an important philosopher. In 1919, Heisenburg participated military actions in the Bavarian Soviet Republic, of course, he was only a big boy at that time, it took this as a fun thing. For him, it is more serious that choosing a way in college.

When he entered the University of Munich, this choice was realively placed in front of him: Ferdinand Von Lindemann, a famous mathematician learning number, or to learn physics with the end of Shere Heisenberg finally chose the latter, thus took a scientific giant's first step. In 1922, Boho was invited to Göttingen for academic access, causing a sensation, even later known as the "Bolchak Festival" of Göttingen. Heisenberg also rushed to Göttingen to Listel. The third grade he actually made some academic opinions on some academic views to make Boh. In fact, Boirs' biggest gains may have encountered Hesson and bubbles, two genius unlimited young people. After these two people went far to Copenhagen, working in Boir's research room and he worked together for a while. In 1925, Heisenburg - he is currently a Ph.D., which has been fully grown into a physicist who is booming and mature. He is in Munich, Göttingen and Copenhagen, makes him a teacher from the best physics master. According to his own statement, he learned an optimistic attitude from the end of the end, in Got Tingen from Bonn, Frank, and Hilbert learned Mathematics, and from Bluuri, he learned to be physics (the end of the end It seems that there is no face, huh, huh). Now, the turn is going to Hesenburg. The physics of the physics will end the clouds, and the bright starlight makes us dazzle. There are a few special bright stars, and their glory illuminates the entire night sky and makes the most gorgeous constellation. Don't pay hard, you should recognize one of them, it is called Vernon Hessoros. As one of the quantum mechanics, this name will always engrave in time and space. ******** After the meal, gossip: The famous sayings of the misunderstood have nothing to do with today's text, but since the Newton is discussed in these few days, there will be some historical facts about Newton. Newton's most well-known saying: "If I see farther, it is because I stand on the shoulder of the giant" (if i have seen further it is by standing on ye shouth of giants). This sentence is usually used to praise the humility of Newton, but from the history, this sentence does not seem to understand the reason for humility. First of all, this sentence is not original. As early as the 12th century, Bernard of Chartres, he is a medieval philosopher, the leader of the famous French Saitere School, said: "NOS Esse Quasi Nanos Gigantium Humeris Insidientes". This sentence means that we are all like elf sitting on the shoulders of giants. This sentence is now also found on the window of the famous Gothic Cathedral of Saartl City. Since Bernard, at least two thirty people have said similar words before Newton. Newton said this is a letter to Husk in 1676. At that time, he had already fainted his darkness with Hook in the issue of light, and the debate has been lasts for many years (you can see our history). In this letter, Newton believes that Hike has seen he (Newton himself)'s ability, then this is famous: "If I see more, it is because I stand on the shoulder of the giant." . The meaning of this is not two: Buffton said that if Hulan said, it was a very obvious compromise: I didn't copy your concept, I just continued to develop on the basis of your work - this is more than you It's a little bit. Newton wants to make an anger of Hu Ke in this way, everyone will stop. But if you want to say large or humble, it seems difficult to talk.

Newton has a happy life for this lifetime. Even after decades, Hulake has already arched in the tomb, he can't mention this name in peace of mind, this sentence is the most tried the diplomatic word of interest. Another possibility, the giant does not point to Hook, it is more obvious: my job is not completely my own, and I stand on the shoulder of the seniors - not you Hook. More historians believe that this sentence is a malicious Nori and satiries - Hu Ke body is short, and "giant" seems to be impossible. This view is even including famous Stephen Hawk, is what he is now sitting on the position of President Newton Lucasa. Newton still has a famous words, and it is very good to say that he is a child of the sea, picking up the shell to play, but has not found the sea. This sentence is not his original, and you can trace back to Joseph Spence. But Newton is most likely to be quoted from John Milton '"Re-Park" (Newton has a collection of Milton). This is obviously the rhetoric that is carefully prepared, Newton himself has never seen the sea, let alone walking on the beach. The biggest river that he has seen in his life is the Thames, it is hard to imagine how the sea is naturally jumped from his mind. I talk about this, I don't want to destroy anyone. I just want to say that history is sometimes given too much aperture and halo, but the truth of history is the responsibility of everyone, no matter what the truth is. At the same time, this also does not affect the achievements of Newton's science - he is the greatest scientist in history.

Chapter 5 Shuguang A Heisenburg will start from July 1924. That month is a good news for Hesenburg, his papers on abnormal Seman effects have passed the review, thus promoting him to lecturers, gaining the qualifications of lectures at any level of German universities. Bohr - he obviously has obvious good feelings about this outstanding young man - also tells him that he has received a bonus of the International Education Foundation (IEB) funded by Rockefeller, a number of 1,000 US dollars. Thus, he has the opportunity to go to Copenhagen, working with Bolbe and his colleagues a year. It is also unconscious, Hesenburg originally went to the United States to lectures in the Corner of Göttingen, so I agree to Hesenburg to Copenhagen, as long as it will come back before the Summer semester next year. From later, Heisenberg's visit to Copenhagen has no positive significance for the development of quantum mechanics. Boir has a worldwide reputation at the study of Copenhagen, with Göttingen, Munich, has become a "gold triangle" in the history of quantum mechanics. Scholars from all over the world have come to visit learning. There are nearly 10 visitors in 1924, of which 6 is funded by IEB, and this number will soon start surges, so that this three-story building will start It seems to be crowded, which has to be expanded. After the end of his summer vacation, Heisenberg arrived in Copenhagen on September 17, 1924, and he and another Dr. King from the United States lived in a master of professor, and his wife Take care of their diet. For Hesenburg, this place is more like a language school - his poor English and Danish levels have improved during their stay. The words retired. In the foregoing, in 1924, within 1925, our physics is in a very difficult and confused situation. The exquisite atomic structure of Bolka has appeared internally cracks inside, while the nature of radiation problems is particles or fluctuations, both parties are still in white. The experiment of Compton has made the physicist who hosted their attitudes to admit that particlehood is undeniable, but this is bound to overthrow the electromagnetic system. This has been rooted in a huge thing that is more than 100 years of physics. The foundation of the latter - Maxwell's theory looks so uncomfortable and cannot be shaken. We have also mentioned that in front of Heisenberg, Should Boce and his assistant Kramers also have Sleter published a theory called BKS to try to solve waves and particles. Two difficulties. In the BKS theory, there is a "virtual vibration" (Virtual Oscillator) in each stable atom, which corresponds to the classic vibration by the corresponding principle, so that the quantization All the advantages of classic fluctuations are still retained (in fact, it wants to further take into account the particles in different levels). However, this seemingly joyful theory really has a hard work, which in order to mediate the grievances between fluctuations and particles, even do not hesitate to abandon physics's cornerstone: energy conservation and momentum conservation law, think they are just a statistical The average of the next time. This cost is too big, and the Einstein is strongly opposed, and the bubble is also converted in his influence, and he is more than once written to Hesenburg complained "virtual vibration" and "virtual physics". Some of the ideas of BKS are not meaningless. Kramer used virtual vibrators to study the dispersion phenomenon and got a positive result. Heisenberg has an interest in this area when studying in Copenhagen and published the paper in physics journals, and these ideas have undoubtedly have an important role in the foundation of later quantum mechanics.

However, BKS theory finally died in the middle. In April 1925, the experiment denied that the conservation only established in statistics, and the light quantum was really real thing, not a virtual wave. The BKS crash marks that the physics is completely confusing, the problem of particles and waves is so confusing and headache, and it is really a "torture". For Hesenburg, who once believes in BKS, this is of course a bad news, but just like a pot of cold water, you can make him awake, consider the future of the future. The days of Copenhagen are nervous and meaningful. Heisenberg undoubtedly felt a competitive atmosphere and docked with his good character. Of course, competition is a matter, Copenhagen's freedom and academic atmosphere are almost unparalleled in Europe, and all this is closely related to Niels Boir this quantum of "Godfather". There is no doubt that everyone in Copenhagen is a genius, but they are better to take out the greatness of Bolbdomes. The kind Dane is reported to be a kind of smile in everyone, and guides people to speak freely, explore all types of problems. People are usually surrounded by him, all of them are all over him, all of which are infered by his knowledge and personality. Heisenberg is no exception, and he will become one of Boir's closest students and friends. Bolbo often invites Hessoros to his home (on the second floor of the Institute) to share the people of the home, or go to the forest behind the study and discuss academic issues. Boir is a very philosophical person. He has a deep philosophical color to many physics issues, which makes Hessonburg are quite shocking and to a large extent affect his own thinking. From a point of view, in the "quantum atmosphere" in Copenhagen and the exchange of Boirs, it may be more valuable than the actual research that Hyosberg has done in that time. At that time, there was a trend of trend in Copenhagen. This thought was at that time, who was triggered, but historically retroactive to Mach. This kind of thinking said that physical research objects should only be able to be observed, physics can only be started from these things, rather than establishing things that are not observed or purely inference. This view has a great influence on Heisenberg and shortly after coming to Copenhagen. Heisenberg has a faint feel that there seems to be unsatisfactory in Bohr's old atom model. It seems that they are not all direct It can be detected for the experiment. The most obvious example is the "track" of electrons and "frequencies" it runs around the track. We will take a look at this problem immediately. On April 27, 1925, Heisenberg ended Copenhagen's visit to Göttingen and started to re-study the line problem of hydrogen atom - the basic principle of the quantum system should be found? Heisenberg's intention is to still take the method of virtual vibrators, although BKS is inverted, but this has proven to be effective in the dispersion theory. Heisenberg believes that this idea should be able to solve some problems that cannot be solved by the Boir system, such as the intensity of the line. But when he was so exccomed, his optimism quickly did not discontinue: in fact, if electronic radiation is launched in accordance with the algebraic method of the virtual vibrator, the mathematics difficulties he encountered is almost impossible. This makes Hessonurg have to give up the original plan. Bubbles are also difficult in the same problem, the obstacles are too big, almost unable to advance, this temper physicist is so violent, almost preparing to give up physics.

"Physics has a big problem", he called, "What is too difficult to me, I would rather I am a movie comedian, I have never heard of physical and something!" (Inserted, bubble It is reason to say that he is a comedian because he is one of the fans of Chaplin's fans. First establish a basic motion model. It turns out that his road is right, the new quantum mechanics will soon be built, but it is a kind of people who have never heard, and I don't want to imagine. Matrix is ​​undoubtedly a sputum of mysterious colors, like an enigma. Whether it is from it in mathematics, it is still as fascinated by the meaning of the movie (even the continuation of the film), it is difficult to grasp, and it is daunting. In fact, many people almost can't believe, our universe is built on these monsters. But don't afford, don't believe it, Matrix has become an indispensable concept in our lives. The science college student can't escape the linear algebra, the engineer can't leave Matlab software, and the beautiful MM will often do Nino Rivis, no magazine. From the sense of mathematics, Matrix translated "matrix" in Chinese, which is essentially a two-dimensional form. For example, the matrix of this 2 * 2 below is actually a 2 * 2 square form: ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 2 10 4 ┗ ┗ can also be a rectangle, such as this matrix of this 2 * 3: ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 2 3 10 5 6 ┗ ┛ readers may have been embarrassing, everyone has been accustomed to physical formulas with letters and symbol representatives, what is the physical significance of this quirky table? What can't be more understood is that this "form" is also like a normal physical variable, can it be operated? How do you add two tables, or take it? Heisenburg is crazy. However, I have reminded everyone that we are about to enter the quantum world that is incredible. In this world, everything looks like that, and there is something that is uncommon, and even some crazy means. Our daily experience is completely invalid here, and even often can't rely. The physical world has used for thousands of years and habits to crack down in the quantum world. It is considered to be a ruthless to abandon, and in some strange strange, but it is more close to the principle of truth. Yes, the world is to build these tables. They can not only be multiplied, but also have a rules that have a struggling rules, resulting in some more surprisingly conclusions. And, this is not expected, it is engaged in real - and the only fact that can be observed and tested - inference. Heisenberg said that it has now reached the time of physics. We will start this fantasy journey.

Second physics, Heisenberg wants to have a solid foundation. It can only start from some things that can be observed and inspected from some, and a physicist should always adhere to strict experience, rather than imagining some images as the basis of theory. The problem of Bohr theory is on this. Let's review what the Bohr Theory said. It said that the electrons in the atom run around some specific tracks, and will move from one track from one track from time to time. Each electronic track represents a specific energy level, so when this transition occurs, the electron is absorbed or emitted in a quantized manner, and its size is equal to the energy difference between the two tracks. Well, it sounds good, and this model is used in many cases. However, Heisenberg began to ask yourself. An electronic "track", what is it? Any experiment can let us see that electrons do it around a track? Any experiment can indeed measure the actual distance of an orbit away from the atomic core? It is familiar to the track, which can be classified than the running track of the planet, but it is different from the planet. There is no magic to let people really see such an "track" of the electronic, and actually measure the representative of one track. " Energy "? There is no magazine, the track of electrons, and it is not able to observe the operation of the track, then how can people get these concepts and build atomic models? We recall the relevant part of the previous history, the Boir model has supported the support of hydrogen atomic spectroscopy. Each spectral line has a specific frequency, and by quantum formula E1-E2 = Hν, we know that this is the result of the transition between the two levels. However, Heisenburg crossed, you still didn't solve my question. No actual observations can prove what "energy level" represented by a track, each spectral line, only represents "energy difference" between two "energy levels". Therefore, only "energy level difference" or "track difference" can be observed directly, and "energy level" and "track" are not. To illustrate the problem, we still come to a better than. One of the fun of the child is to collect a variety of tram tickets to play the ticket sellers. At that time, Shanghai's tickets are usually very cheap, the most is a wonderful money. But the rules are like this: no matter which station you get on the bus, the farther the ticket is relatively expensive. For example, I will get on the car from Xujiahui, so I will take the Huaihai Road, as long as 3 points, and I will go to People's Square, I have to be 5 points. I will have 7 points to the Bund. If I have been sitting in the Hongkou Stadium, I may have to spend 1 cent. . Of course, in the past two years, the bus has been replaced by unmanned ticket and unified billing - no matter how far is a price, the fare is also too late. Let us assume that there is a bus from the A station and go to the E this terminal through the BCD three stop. The charging of this car took the old tradition of our nostalgic era, not to get 2 dollars in the bus, but based on the starting point and end point. We may wish to order a fee: A station and the B station is 1 dollar, B and C are close, 0.5 yuan. There is still 1 dollar between C and D, while D and E are far away, 2 dollars. In this way, the fare is easy to calculate. For example, I have a car from the B station to the E station, then I should give 0.5 1 2 = 3.5 yuan as a fare. In turn, if I get on the train from D. The reason is the same: 1 0.5 1 = 2.5 yuan. Boir and Heisenburg are now called a note on the fare. It is a reference to the car. Bolbe said, he said: This question is very simple, the price of the fare is actually the distance between the two stations, and we only need to write the position of each station, then passengers can be able to be at a glance.

So he assume that the coordinates of the A station are 0, thereby launching: the coordinates of the B station is 1, the coordinates of the C station is 1.5, the coordinates of the D station is 2.5, and the coordinates of the E station is 4.5. This is, Bohr said that the fare is the absolute value of the coordinates of the starting point, and our "coordinates" can actually see a "car fee level", all the situation is completely Contains in the table below: Site coordinates (car fee level) A 0 B 1 C 1.5 D 2.5 E 4.5 This is a classic solution, each station is assumed to have some absolute "car fee level ", As each track of electrons in atoms is assumed to have some specific level of energy. All fares, no matter which station from which station is located, you can solve this single variable, this is a one-dimensional traditional form, which can be expressed as an ordinary formula. This is also a traditional solution for all physical problems. Now, Heisenberg is talking. No, Hesenburg argue that this idea has a fundamental mistake, that is, as a passenger, he can't conscious, it is impossible to observe what is "absolute coordinate" of a station. For example, I will take a bus from the C station to D. No matter how I can't observe that "the coordinates of the C station is 1.5", or "the coordinates of the D station is 2.5". As me - passengers, I can observe and experience it, "I have to spend 1 dollar from the C station", this is the most unique, and solid. Our fare rules can only be based on such facts, rather than unobservable "coordinate", or "energy level". So, how can I just create our fare rules from these facts that can be observed? Hesenburg said that the traditional one-dimensional table is no longer applicable, we need a new type of form, like this: abcdea 0 1 1.5 2.5 4.5 B 1 0 0.5 1.5 3.5 C 1.5 0.5 0 1 3 D 2.5 1.5 1 0 2 E 4.5 3.5 3 2 0 This, vertical is the starting point, horizontal is the terminal. Every number in this form is now observable and inspected. For example, the 1.5 of the third column of the first line, its abscissa is A, indicating that from the A station. Its ordinate is C, indicating that you get off at C station. So, as long as a passenger is really sitting at the C station from the A station, he can confirm that this number is correct: this trip does require 1.5 cars. Ok, some readers may have been impatient, they are indeed two different types of things, but is this distinctive meaning? After all, do they express, isn't it the same charge rule? But things are more complicated than what we think, such as the reason why Boir's form is so simple, in fact, there is such a hypothesis, that is, "from a to b" and "from b to a", the money required is the same of. The fact may not be the case, from A to B to 1 dollars, back to A from B. It is likely to be 1.5 yuan. This way, Boir's traditional way should be a big headache, and Hesenburg's form is concise: as long as B is the number of the abscissa A as a longitudinal coordinate, but the form is no longer in accordance with the diagonal symmetry. Yes. More critical is that Hesenburg argues that all physical rules must be rewritten in this form. We already have a classic dynamics equation, and now we must all rewrite them into a table equation in a quantum. Many traditional physical variables now have to be considered some independent matrices.

In classic mechanics, a periodic vibration can be decomposed by mathematical methods into a series of simple restrictions, which is called Fourier deployment. Imagine our ears, it can be sensitive to all kinds of different sounds, even if these sounds rang, mixed a noisy and irrelevant, a feng friend can even distinguish the fine sandhae of the music hand flipped in CD music. Nature is very magical, but from essentially, mathematician can do this, the method is to decompose a mixed sound to a series of simple harmonics through Fourier analysis. Everyone may be sigh, people can complete such complex mathematical analysis in instantly, but this is actually the evolution of nature. For example, goalkeeper hugged flying football, from mathematics equivalent to a large pile of gravity and aerodynamic differential equations and find the trajectory of the ball, such as the reaction of human instinctive avoidance, from gene The perspective is also equivalent to calculating countless risk probability and future profit. But this is just because the power of evolution makes organisms tend to have such power, which is conducive to natural choice, not what special mathematics capabilities are caused. Go back to the topic, in the old atomic model of Boce and Sony, we already have electronic motion equations and quantization conditions. This movement can also utilize the methods of Fourier analysis, and chemically make a series of piles. Each of this expansion is representative of a specific frequency. Now, Heisenberg is ready to operate this old equation and thoroughly transform it into the latest matrix version. But difficult, we now have a variable P, representing the momentum of electronics, and a variable q, representing the location of electrons. Originally, the two variables in the old square should take it. Now Hesenburg has become a matrix, then how should P and Q now take up? This question is good: How do you take two "forms"? Or we may wish to ask yourself a question: Multipouth two forms, what is the meaning? In order to be easily understood, we returned to our metaphor of the bus fare. Now, we have two furcase forms set in our hands: Matrix I and Matrix II, representing the charging situation of the bus i line and bus type II lines. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that there is only two stations, A and B per line. These two tables are as follows: I line (matrix I): a B A 1 2 B 3 1 II line (matrix II): a B A 1 3 B 4 1 Good, let's review these two forms represents what it means. According to the rules of Heisenburg, the number's horizontal sign represents the starting point, and the ordinate represents the terminal. The one of the first column of the first line of the matrix i is said that you are sitting on the bus No. No., starting from A, under the land of the ground, the cost is 1 dollar (ah why it doesn't work Pay 1 dollar? This ... On the one hand is a metaphor, then you can see 1 amount of money as a start fee. Bever you mention in the subway in most cities, you will come in, you really want to be on the electronic card. Draw a little money). Similarly, the 2 of the second column of the matrix i's second column is that you take 2 dollars from A to B, need 2 yuan. However, if you return to A from B, it is necessary to see that the abscissa is b and the ordinate is the number of A, which is the third line of the first column of the second line. The same is true of the matrix II. Ok, now we will do a mathematical practice of primary school students: multiplication. Just but this time is not a normal number, but two tables: I and II. I × II is equal to a few? Let us write out the exercise completely.

Now, Boys and Girls, what is the answer to this topic? ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 2 1 3 10 1 × 4 1 ​​=? ┗ ┛ ┗ ******** After meals: Boy Physics In 1925, when Hesenburg made his breakthrough contribution, he just was 24 years old. Although there is extremely amazing genius physically, Heisenberg is unbearable in other ways is just a child. He was so exciting to travel around the Youth League. During his stay in Copenhagen, he took the time to Bavaria ski, and the result was broken, lying a few worships. When you travel in the valley field, he is happy to be self-evident, and even say "I don't want to think about a second physics." The development of quantum theory is almost the world of young people. Einstein raised the light quantum in 1905, it was only 26 years old. Bolbo presented his atomic structure in 1913, 28 years old. Debroji proposed a phase wave in 1923, 31 years old. In 1925, when the quantum mechanics broke through the Hessenburg's hand, the main characters that sparkled in history were almost all as young: bubble 25 years old, Dirac 23 years old, Wu Relick 25 years old, Gude Schmidt 23 years old, Jolu 23 years old. And they compared to them, 36-year-old Schrödinger and 43-year-old Bonn are simply grandfather. Quantumic mechanics is called "Boy Physics", Bonn's theoretical class in Göttingen, and is also called "Born Kindergarten". However, this only explains the sharpness and vitality of the quantity. In that mythical era, I symbolizes the steps of science, I will never know the fear, and create an unprecedented era. "Boy Physics" This has legendary nouns, and will also engrave the eternal light in the history of physics.

Three last time we arranged an exercise question, now let's come together to ask its answers. ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 2 1 3 10 1 × 4 1 ​​=? ┗ ┛ ┗ ┛ If you remember our metaphor of our public bus, the matrix i on the left of the number represents the spending form of our bus No. No., represents the matrix II on the right, represents the toll form of the II line. I is a 2 × 2 form, II is also a 2 × 2 form, we have reason to believe that their product should also be similar in form, also a 2 × 2 form. ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┓ 2 1 1 1 1 × 4 1 ​​= ┗ ┗ ┛ ┛ ┗ ┛ But, what is the answer? How do we ask for four unknown numbers? More importantly, what is i × II meaning? Heisenberg said, i × II, indicating that you take the bus No. 1 and then transfer the II line. What is A in the answer? A is in the first column of the first line, which must also represent some of the charge of the Aground car from A. Hesenburg said, in fact, that is, you will start from A from A, and then transfer to a underground car during the period. Because it is a multiplication, it indicates the product of "i-line charges" and "II line charges". However, the situation is not so simple, because our route may have more than one, A actually represents the "sum" of all charges. If this is not understood, then we simply make the topic. The answer in the answer, as we have explained, indicating that I started from A, and then transferred to the II line, and returned to the sum of the charging situation of the underground car. So, how do we do this specifically? There are two ways: the first, we can take the line I from A to B, then transfer to the II line in B, and then return to A from B. In addition, there is an approach to our line I on the A, and then get off at the same place. Then II II is still in A, which is also under the original ground. Although it sounds uncommon, it is undoubtedly a way. Then, A, in fact, in fact, it is the sum of these two methods. Now let's take a look at how the specific number should be: the first method, let's take the i line from A to B, how much is the fare? We still remember the rules of the fare of Hesenburg, then the number of the matrix I abscissa is a sleepler as B, which is the 2nd, 2 yuan of the second column of the first line. Ok, then we returned to A from B, and the fare here corresponds to the 4 of the first column of the second line of the matrix II. Therefore, the "charging product" of the first method is 2 × 4 = 8. However, we mentioned that there is another possibility, that is, we haven't moved the i line in A. and then down, and the II line is again, which is equally in line with our A. . This corresponds to the product of two numbers of the first column of the first column of the two matrices, 1 × 1 = 1. So, our final answer, A, is equal to these two possible superpositions, that is, A = 2 × 4 1 × 1 = 9. Because there is no third possibility. The same principle we come to B. b represents the first line I and transfer to the II line, and finally arrive at the sum of the charging situation in B. There are also two ways to do: first get off at the i line I, then take the bus from the II line from A.

The charge is 1 (matrix I first line first column) and 3 pieces (matrix II first row second column), so 1 × 3 = 3. Another way is to first take the line I from A to B, charge 2 pieces (matrix I first row second column), then turn it up and down in B land II line, charge 1 (matrix II Two lines second column), so 2 × 1 = 1. So the final answer: B = 1 × 3 2 × 1 = 5. Everyone can steal the answer, try to ask for C and D. The last should be such: c = 3 × 1 1 × 4 = 7, D = 3 × 3 1 × 1 = 10. So: ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 2 1 10 × × × 1 = 7 10 ┃ ┗ ┛ ┗ ┛ ┗ ┛ ┛ ┛ ┛ ┛ 让 让 让 让 让 抱,, 让,,,, ┛ ┛ ┛ ┛ ┛ Indeed in learning new things. If you think this multiplication is very strange, then we will soon give you a bigger surprise, but first we want to be familiar with this new computing rule. The saint said that the temperature is new, we don't have to be self-satisfied with your own new things, or consolidate the consolidation of our foundation, let us check the topic above. Oh, don't be fainted, don't fain, in fact, there is not so boring, we can put the multiplication order, now II × I: ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┏ ┓ ┓ 1 3 1 2 1 × 1 = CD ┗ ┛ ┗ ┛ ┗ ┗ ┛ I know everyone is sighing, but I still insist that the review of the homework is good. Let's take a look at what is A. Now we will take the II line first, then turn the line I, so we can go from A to the II line, then down. On the i line, then come down again. The corresponding is 1 × 1. In addition, we can take the II line to B, and go back to A in B, so it is 3 × 3 = 9. So a = 1 × 1 3 × 3 = 10. Hello, dozing, wake up, we have problems. In our verification, A = 10, but I still remember that our answer said A = 9. Everyone puts a notebook back to a few pages, see if I have a mistake? Well, although everyone didn't know notes, I still didn't remember, just our A = 2 × 4 1 × 1 = 9. It seems that I have a mistake, we will count again, this time you have to play spirit: A represents A on behalf of the car A underground car. So possible cases: I take the II line on the A-ground car A underground car (the first column of the first line of the matrix II), 1. Then the line I is also on the A-ground car A underground vehicle (the first column of the first line of the matrix I), and is also 1. 1 × 1 = 1. There is also a possibility that I take the II line on the A-ground bus B underground (the second column of the first line of the matrix II), 3. Then return from B to A (the first column of the second line of the matrix II), 3 blocks in B. 3 × 3 = 9. So a = 1 9 = 10. Well, strange, yes.

So do you have something wrong in front? We will count again, it seems right, front a = 1 8 = 9. So, then ... who is wrong? Haha, Hesenburg was wrong, he lost his face this time, he invented a form of multiplication, actually leading to such a ridiculous result: i × II ≠ II × I. We may wish to calculate the result entire: ┏ ┓ ┓ 9 5,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,9G This is really a pity. It turns out that we have thought that this table format is at least a little creative. Now it seems to be wasted for a lot of time, I have to say sorry. However, slow, Heisenberg still has something to say, don't worry about our dead brain cells, and their death may not be completely meaningless. Everyone is calm, everyone is calm, Heisen Fort, shaking his beautiful hair, we must learn to face reality. We have already said that physics must start from the only data that can be practiced, not by imagination and common sense habits. We must learn to rely on mathematics, rather than the daily language, because only mathematics has the only meaning to tell us the only true. We must realize this: how to say mathematics, what we have to accept. If the mathematics say i × II ≠ II × i, then we have to think so, even the world is laughing with a ridicule, we can't change this position. What's more, if you carefully review this meaning, there is not much absurd: first take the line I, then turn the II line, this and first take the II line, then turn the I line, resulting in the results may be different What is the problem? Ok, some people say that the second law is f = mA, or f = AM? Heisenberg said coldly, Newton Mechanics is a classic system, we discuss the quantum system. Never be too big to surprise any strange nature of the quantum world, it will let you go crazy. Quantum rules do not have to be bound by multiplication exchange rates. He couldn't make more tongue dispute. In 1925, he was infected by a fever, and he had to leave the Göttingen, and a small island Hurgoland in the North Sea. But his brain did not stagnate, on the island away from the hustle and bustle, Heisenberg rushed along this strange table format to explore the future of physics. Moreover, he will soon get a success: The equation that Hesson, Heisenberg can naturally lead to quantified atomic energy levels and radiation frequencies. And all this can be syndrome to solve the equation itself, and no longer need to add a unnatural quantum condition like Boir's old model. Heisenberg's form is used to use! Mathematics explains everything, our imagination is reliable. Although this quirky non-compliance matrix Multiplication means, no matter what Hessenbao, or all of them, it is still a puzzle, but the basic form of quantum mechanics has been got. Break through progress. From this time, quantum theory will move forward with a magnificent gesture, each step is so magnificent, and the sky is stunned and beautiful.

The next three years is a dreamy for 3 years. It is a 3-year third year in physical history. The theoretical physics's golden era, finally to emit its most dazzling glory, put all the 20th century to sacred. Heisenberg later recalled it in the letter written to Friends Van Devode. When he was on the stone island, it suddenly thought that the total energy of the system should be a constant. So he tried to use his rule to solve this equation for vibrator energy. Solving is not easy, he did an all night, but the results and experiments were very good. So he climbed a cliff to see the sunrise, and he felt very lucky. Yes, the dawn has appeared, the sun is rising from the sea line, Wan Dao Guang is staining the sea and the air clouds, flowing in the world flowing fantasy glow. On the top of the high stone cliff, Heisenberg faces spectacular sunrise sights, he is in the foot of the sea, and has extended to endless afar. Yes, he knows that this is the moment, he has made the most important breakthrough in his life, and the dawn of physics is finally coming. ******** After meals, gossip: Matrix We have seen, Heisenberg invented this strange form, i × II ≠ II × I, even he didn't grasp what monsters were sure. When he ended the disease, after returning to the Gen Tinggen, he sent the draft draft to the teacher, let him comment. Bonn saw that this form of table is surprised. It turns out that this is not a fresh thing, it is "matrix" learned in linear algebra! Retrosing history, this tool has been invented by a Cambridge's mathematician Arthur Cayley in 1858, but it is called "behavior" at that time, it is called "DETERMINANT, this word later turned into another one. Although it is still close to the matrix relationship). The initial purpose of the invention is to solve certain differential equations (in fact until today, the university linear algebraic class is mainly solved). However, Heisenberg did not know anything, he actually unconsciously "reinvent" the concept of matrix. Bonn and his masterpiece operations developed the theory of Hesenburg on the basis of strict mathematics, further improving quantum mechanics, we will soon talk. Mathematics is always leading in a sense. When CAYLEY founded a matrix, it naturally couldn't think of it will play a key role in the development of quantum. Similarly, when Liman created Liman Geometry, how can he provide the best tool to Einstein and his great relativity. George? Gaimov said in the "One, Two, Three ... Infinity" said that there is still a big branch in the current mathematics (except for the use of intellectual gymnastics). Outside, that is, the number. There have been many problems in the field of ancient quotations, such as four color problems, and Ma Ma. There are also such as famous Gothbach guess, so far. God knows that these theories and ideas are not to open a physics or chemical theory in the future, and create a new world.

After returning from Hurghlan, Heisenberg found Bonn, requested that he will leave the Gordin root, go to the Cambridge lecture. At the same time, he also gave his paper to Bonn, asked him if there is no value. Bonn was obviously fascinated by Hesenburg's idea. As he later recalled: "I have been fascinated by this ... Heisenberg has left a deep impression, the system we have been pursued. For this, this is a great breakthrough. "So when Hesenburg went to the British lecture, Bonn sent his paper to" Zeitschrift Fur Physik, and on July 29) Japanese post. This undoubtedly marks the first appearance of the new quantum mechanics in front of the public. However, Heisenberg's weird forms multi-passenger also made Bonn, and he said in the letter written to Einstein on July 15: "Heisenberg new work looks a little mysterious, but it is undoubtedly very deep. And it is correct. "However, one day, Bonn suddenly turned into light: he finally remembered what this is. Heisenberg's form is the "matrix" he heard from us! However, for the European physicist at the time, the matrix is ​​almost a complete unfamiliar name. Even Hessenburg himself, nor is it a complete understanding of its nature. Bonn decided to play a solid mathematics foundation for Hesenburg, he found the bubble, hoped to cooperate with it, but the bubbles held a strong skeptical attitude towards this. He said to Bonn with his iconic perseverance. Yes, I know that you like the lengthy and complex formism, but your useless mathematics will only harm the physical idea of ​​Hesenburg. "Bonn touched a nose ash in the bubble, have to turn to him. Familiar with Matrix Computing, Pascual Jordan, it's a worship, it is his birth of 101 years. On the Physics Magazine. In this paper, the two used a lot of space to clarify the basic rules of matrix operations, and transformed classic mechanics Hamilton transform into the form of matrix. Traditional momentum P and position q, these two physical variables, now there are two huge forms containing unlimited data, and as we have seen, they do not comply with traditional multiplication exchange rates, p × q ≠ Q × P. Bonn and Jolder even the difference between P × Q and Q × P, the result is this: pq - qp = (h / 2πi) i h is the Planck constant we have been familiar with, i It is an imaginary unit, represents the square root of -1, and i is called a unit matrix, which is equivalent to 1 of the matrix operation. Bonn and Jolgen laid a new mechanical-matrix mechanics. Under the magic of this new mechanical system, Pranceci constant and quantization jumped naturally from our basic mechanical equation to become the inner necker of nature. If you carefully discuss this mechanical form, people will be surprised to find that all kinds of conclusions in the Newton system, such as energy conservation, can be obtained from the new theory. That is to say, new mechanics is actually an extension of Newton's theory. Old classic mechanics is actually "contained" in our new mechanics, becoming a special form of expression. This new mechanics will soon be further improved. After returning from Cambridge, Heisenberg I also joined this great groundbreaking work. On November 26th, "The Mechanics II" was published in "Physics Magazine", the author is Bonn, Heisenberg and Jolder. This paper expands only a degree of freedom of freedom to any freedom, thus thus establishing a new mechanism.

Now, they can proudly claim that the goal of people who have worked hard have finally reached, so many years have placed the physicist atomic spectroscopy, and now I can finally solve it within the new mechanics. This article is kindly called "Dreimannerarbeit) by Heisenberg himself, and finally be destined to be in the history of physics. The new system is clearly a huge success in theory. The bubble will soon change his attitude, and he said in the letter of Ralph Laer Kronig, he said: "Heisenberg's mechanics made me new enthusiasm and hope." Subsequently he was very fast It gives an extremely convincing proof, showing the results of the new theory and the spectra of the hydrogen molecules are very perfect, from quantum rules, Baltienda formulas can be naturally derived. Very funny is that although he said, he said "lengthy and complex formism" on Bonn, but his own proof undoubtedly used the most complex mathematics. However, for other physicists at that time, Heisenberg's new system is undoubtedly a monster. Matrix This cold ice thing is too unfair, do not give people any imagination. People have repeatedly asked, what is the physical meaning of this? What is the matrix? Heisenberg has always navited his depressed position: the so-called "meaning" does not exist, if there is, the mathematics is all "meaning". What is physics? It is from experimental observations, and linked to a science in a huge complex mathematics relationship. If any image can make people easily understand and memorize, it is reliable. However, no matter what, after all, the matrix mechanics is too strange to most people, and the profound meaning behind it has not been discovered. Especially, P × q ≠ Q × P, which means what is represented, and it is a headache. One year later, when Schrödinger released his fluctuation equation with the traditional way of people like, almost all the world's physicists were relieved: they finally liberated, and they didn't have to pay back the abnormal complexity of Hesenburg. Difficult matrix mechanics. Of course, everyone must admit that the great meaning of matrix mechanics itself is not suspected. However, if most of the physicologists in Europe, most of Europe have also known Hesisurg, Bonn and Jorson's mechanics, then we have to say that there is a very significant exception, he is Paul? Di Lak. In the era of massive development, Copenhagen, Göttingen and Munich were robbed, Dirac's rising finally saved a little face for the old Cambridge. Paul Merrian Morris Dirac (Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac) was born on Bristol, England, August 8, 1902. His father is Swiss, which is a French teacher, Dirac is the second child at home. Many physicists' childhood education are colorful, such as Boir, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger. However, Dirac's childhood is obviously a lot of tragic, his father is a very serious and engraved person, which has set a large number of strict rules to Paul. For example, he stipulates that Paul can only speak French with him (he thinks this is to learn this language), so when Paul can't express himself, I have to choose silence. In the childhood, music, literature, and art obviously have no reason, and social activities are almost no. All this has created Dirac into a silence, like lonely, fame and fortune, people who appear geeky in many people.

There is a very wide joke about Dirac, saying this: One time Dirac is speaking in a university, after the speaking, a viewer said: "Professor Dirac, I don't understand how your formula is derived. Dirac looked at him for a long time, the host had to remind him that he had not answered questions. "What questions?" Dirac strangely said, "He just said a statement sentence, not a question." In 1921, Dirac graduated from the Motor Engineering Department of Bristol University, coinciding with the economic depression, result Find work. In fact, it is difficult to say that he will become an excellent engineer, Dirac is obviously longer than the theory. Fortunately, the Mathematics Department of Bristol University has given him a chance to train mathematics. After 2 years, Dirac is transferred to Cambridge and starting a new chapter of life. We have said above, in the fall of 1925, when Hesenburg made his breakthrough in Hullland, he won the approval of Bonn to Cambridge. At that time, Heisenberg had no bottom to his discovery, so he did not mention his work in this area, but July 28, he participated in the so-called "Capi Club" event. P.l.kapitsa is a young Soviet student, which followed Rutherford at Cambridge. He felt the UK academic activity Tai's car, and he organized a club, at night, report, and discuss the latest developments in physics. We mentioned the name of the Kapi when he discussed Rutherford, and he later won the Nobel Prize. Dirac is also one of the members of the Kapaki Club. He is not in the Cambridge at the time, so he did not participate in this party. However, his mentor, William Alfred Fowler, and probably discussed after the class of Hesson, learned that he has invented a new theory to explain the atomic spectrum problem. Later, Heisenberg sent his proof to Fowler, and Waler gave a copy of Dirac. This start did not attract Dirac's attention, but after a week, he re-examined Hesenburg's papers. He grasped the essence of them: Other fizzling festival, only one thing is important, then It is our weird matrix method rule: p × q ≠ × p. ******** After meals, gossip: Jorst Pascual Jordan is born in Hannover. In our history, he has been mentioned that he is one of the two important papers in physics, one of the authors of the quantum mechanics, which can be said to be the main founders of quantum mechanics. However, his reputation is clearly not on Bonn or Heisenberg. The reason is obviously also many aspects. In 1925, Jolmin was 22 years old, no matter whether it is eligible to reputation, it is far from the Yuanyuan-level Bonn and the teenager's famous Hessorg. Those who contributed together with him, later became so famous: Bonn, Heisenberg, Bubble, their gloomy eyes, cover John completely. From Jors, I personally, he is a shy and introverted person, talking with mouth, always taking the Baba, so he rarely lectors or delivered a speech. More serious is that Josh Decheng stationed in Hitler during World War II, became a Nazi sympathy, accused once. This greatly damages his name. Jors is a scientist who made many great achievements. In addition to the foundation of the basic matrix mechanics, he also made a huge contribution to the quantum field, electronic spin, and quantum electrodynamics.

He is one of the first people who first prove the same characteristics of Heisenberg and Schrödinger. He invented Jorson's contemporary numbers, and later widespreadly in biology, psychology and sports. He was nominated as the Nobel Prize winner, but he did not succeed. Jors did later obviously worried about his achievements. In 1964, he claimed that "the quantum mechanics" is almost almost all his contribution - Bonn. This has caused extensive disputes, but many people clearly agree that Josh Dang's contribution should get more recognition.

Five p × q ≠ × p. If Dirac is where the genius is genius, that is, he can see that this is the essence of Heisenberg system. At that time, Bonn and Jolder still drilled the born matrix. In order to establish a new physical building, they worked hard to carry out this huge and heavy table-style brick, and their article has not yet been published. But Dirac does not want to do this kind of hardship, he easily grasped the essence of this algebra through Heisenberg's form. Don't follow the exchange rate, what does I think of what I think of? Dirac's mind flashed a noun. He used to heard a computation when he was in a certain kinetic class. It also does not meet the multiplication exchange rate. But he is not very certain, he even forgotten the definition of the operation. That day is Sunday, all libraries are closed, which makes Dirac anxiously like ants on hot pots. Early the next morning, the library has just opened the door, he rushed in, and sure, that is what he wants: its name is "Po Snonne". When we discussed light and Fresnel in Chapter 1, we talked about overpass, and there is a famous Poisson spot. Poisson brackets are also the outstanding contributions of this French scientist, but we don't have to deepen its mathematical significance here. In short, Dirac discovered that we don't have to spend the force of nine bull two tigers to carry a obscure matrix to show the detergent of the classic system. We can set up a new algebra from the classic Po pose bracket. This algebra also does not meet the multiplication exchange rate, Dirac calls it as "Q number" (q means "strange" or "quantum"). Our concept, location, energy, time, etc. must now be transformed into this Q number. And the original variables in the old system in the old system, Dirac calls them as "C" (c represents "ordinary"). "Look." Dirac said, "The last equation of Heisenberg is of course right, but we don't need him to be a big strange, to be strong, and you can get the same result. Use my way, you can also get it The difference between XY-YX, but replaced the hated matrix to our classic Po pizza [x, y]. Then use it for classic mechanics Hamilton functions, we can be sympathy Export energy conservation conditions and Boore frequency conditions. Important, this clearly shows that our new mechanics and classic mechanics are inhabited, an extension of the old system. C number and Q number, can be clear Established contact. "Dirac sent the paper to Heisenberg, Heisenberg praised his achievements, but brought a bad news to Dirac: His results have been made in Germany by Bonn and Joes. It is obtained by a matrix. I want to come to Dirac, I must feel very depressed, because it is clear that his law is more concise. Then Dirac has proved the match between the new mechanics and hydrogen molecular experiment data. He once again depressed - bubble than him is a little bit, five days. The guy of Göttingen, Heisenberg, Bonn, Jolton, Bubble, they are the United Army joint operation, and Dirac in Cambridge is struggling, because in the UK knows that quantum mechanics simply succumb . However, although Dirac is slower, every time his theory looks more simple, beautiful and profound. Moreover, God will soon give him a new opportunity, let his name are not inferior in Hessenburg, Bonn and others in history. Now, on the ruins of the old classic system, there is a new mechanics, which lays the foundation for it, Bonn, Jol, John to build a strong body for it, and Di The beautiful Q number of Rock made it the best decoration. Now, the only lack is a successful advertisement and a ceremony, and people who are still sighing in the old ruins come to the new building to settle.

This celebration was held 3 months after the breakthrough in Heisenberg, and its theme is called "Electronic Spin". We still remember that the "abnormal Seman effect" that makes a headache, this complex phenomenon requires the introduction of 1/2 of quantum number. To this end, the bubble proposes his famous "incompatible principle" assumption in early 1925. We have already discussed in front of it. This provision is that in the atomic building, there is a 4-digit 4 digits in each room. The house number, and each room can only be accommodated. Therefore, any two electrons cannot share the same number of numbers. This "4-digit number", each of which represents a quantum of electrons. At that time, people have already known that the electronic has 3 quantum numbers, what is the fourth, and has become a riddle of the public. Shortly after the incompatibility principle, the Ralph Kronig, who visited Copenhagen, was able to rotate this fourth degree of freedom as electrons around his axis. He found Hessoros and Bubbles, raised this idea, and the results were consistently opposed by two German young people. Because this also returned to a image-related electronic concept, the electronic imagination became a real ball, and violated our original intention to observe and mathematics. If the electronics is such a charging ball, it is unstable in the Maxwell system, and then it is also violated the relative theory - its surface rotation speed is higher than the speed of light. In the fall of 1925, the assumption of spinning was in the Netherlands University of Leiden University, and the george eugene uhlenbeck and the ambigcraham goudsmit there were fired ashes. Of course, the two do not know that Croigig has had such views, they are independently generated this idea when studying the spectrum. So the two found Paul Ehrenfest asking for advice. Elan Fest is not very confirmed, he suggests that the two will write a small article first. So the two did a short written to Elan Fest, and then asked for the old Queonz. Lorenz helped them calculated, and the result was 10 times the speed of the light speed in this model. The two were very surprised, and the wind rushed back to the university to revoke the text, the result is late, Elan Fest has sent Nature Magazine. It is said that the two were annoyed, and Elan Fest had to comfort them and said, "You are still young, don't do it." Fortunately, things did not imagine that bad. Bolbo first agreed this, Heisenberg calculated the objection attitude after the new theory was calculated. In 1926, Heisenburg has been saying: "If there is no Good Schmidt, we really don't know how to deal with Seman effect." Some technical problems are also solved soon, such as a factor 2, always And theory of theory, the result of American physicists visited by the Bohr Research Institute found that people have made a computational error, while the spin model is correct. Soon Heisenberg and John used matrix mechanics to deal with spin, the result is a great victory, and no one doubts the correctness of the spin. Oh, there is a exception, it is bubble, he has always been deeply sick. In his opinion, the original electronics have been fully expressed in mathematics - now is good, what shape, track, size, rotation ... all kinds of experienced concepts are back. The atomic system is like a solar system than any time. It is only a publicity, and now it is. He always walked according to his own path, and never bowed to any mechanical model. In fact, in a sense, the bubble is right, the electronic spin does not imagine the rotation of the traditional planet, which has 1/2 of the number of quantum, that is, it is going to turn the same A face, the meaning of this can only be grasped by mathematics.

Later, the bubble was really starting from a specific matrix, and everything was launched in the 1928 quantum system in 1928, which became an electronic inner natural property. However, in any case, 1926 Heisenberg and Jorson's success is not only the victory of the electronic spin model, but also the victory of the new matrix mechanics. Soon Heisenberg stated that the road to solving two electrons, the path of the atom-helium atoms, so that the power of the new system once again exceeded the old system of Boir, expand its territory to the field of previous unknown. Physicists who have been in the fog and thorns have a few years, this is finally eyebrow, and sweep the bad mood of long-standing stupid, breathing the fresh air. However, people have not had a restless feet, enjoy the surrounding scenery, and proud to the current achievements, our speedboat is going forward. Physics is in the lady, it is flown straight down, and the speed and stimulation of people with dizziness. From Newton's 250 years, science never in this period of time, it is like now, and flies. The quantum's power is now completely awakened. In the next three years, it will change everything in physics, and the most popular printed in human wisdom and affect the face of the whole 20th century. When Ulan Baker and Good Schmitter proposed spin, Boir is going to Leiden's road. When his train arrived in Hamburg, he found that Bubble and Stern Stunt stood on the platform, just want to ask him to ask him about spin, Bohr did not believe, but call this very interesting. After arriving in Liede, he met Einstein and Elan Fest, Einstein, analyzed this theory, so Boce changed its view. On the way back, Boir is standing on the platform by Göttingen, Heisenberg and Jorson. The same question: How do you think of spin? Finally, when Boir's train arrived in Berlin, the bubble stood on the platform - he rushed to Berlin from Hamburg, and I would like to listen to what is seen in Boir along. People later recalled that age, simply like a fairy tale. The physicists have been hung by hunger. They can't stand their feet: the rhythm is almost no chance to breathe, and the concept of explosive is repeatedly proposed, and each is enough to change the entire scientific look. However, everyone is deep proud and proud, in the theoretical physical golden age, can play the role on the historical stage. It is often said that the time of the time is hero. In the era of quantum physics, the heroes have left the greatest performance, and they will always let the people go forward. Go back to our History. Now, the flowers are open, and each table is Let's take a look at how the quantum is how the different thinking is completely different, and it has achieved the same great breakthrough.

Chapter VI Dado, the young Hessorough, the young Hessorough, in the Gordie, Erwin Schrodinger, is already a famous professor at the University of Zurich, Switzerland. Of course, compared with Hessenburg, Schrödinger can only be as late. The Austrian Austrian born in Vienna did not have a good luck in Hesensburg, in a environment full of top elite characters, and several times in the war have also hindered his academic research. But in any case, Schrödinger's physical genius is still very good. He has made outstanding contributions in optical, electromagnetic, molecular motion theory, solid and crystal kinetics, which makes Zurich to provide in 1921. Give him a contract and hired Jies as a physicity. Since 1924, Schrödinger began to interested in quantum mechanics and statistical theory, thereby turning the research direction to this. And Boir is also different from Hesen, Schrödinger does not want to struggle in conflict in the labyrinth of atoms, and hit the head. His inspiration, directly from Debroyi, clever work. We still remember that in 1923, Debroji's research revealed that with each movement, there is always a "phase wave" like a shadow. This is the nature of matter whether the matter is the nature of the particles or a more mysterious veil, but it has also provided the road to the final answer. Schrödinger still learned Debroyi from Einstein's articles. He said in the letter written to Einstein on November 3, 1925: "I have read the most interesting papers in Debroyi a few days ago, and eventually mastered it. I am from you. The first time I found it in Section 8 of the second papers of the simple gas. "Every particle is seen as the thought of gerbera, and he is very charming to Schrödinger. He will soon be in gas statistic. This theory is applied and published a paper entitled "Theory of Gas Theory". This is the last papers he created before the fluctuation. It was only one month from the great moment. It can be seen from it, Debrovi's thoughts have gone to Schrödinger's trust. He began to believe that only through this wave of approach can only reach the target of people. In 1925, Christmas is coming soon, the beautiful Alps on the mountains, which attracts tourists around the world. Schrödinger came to the place where he was often seen before: Arosha (AROSA) at an altitude of 1700 meters. Since he and Annemarie Bertel married in 1920, the two often come here to vacation. Schrödinger's life has a near-engraved law, and he never let anything interfere with his holiday. Every time the couple came to Arrosa, they always lived in Herveg Villa. This is a hut with a sharp, four floors. However, in 1925, only Schrödinger is a person, Anne stayed in Zurich. At that time, their relationship was obviously nervous, more than one time to break up and divorce. Schrödinger wrote a "old day girlfriend" to Vienna, let her come to Aloss to accompany himself. The mysterious girl's identity is always a puzzle. Whether it is a scientific history expert or a gossip journalist, he has done a good idea to try her true face, but there is no success. Schrödinger's diary has lost, and from the leaving a clue, she is not like any known Schrödinger. But there is a matter of affirmation: This mysterious girl has greatly inspired Schrödinger, making him surprisingly maintained a state of creativity and insight in the next 12 months, and The continually published six major papers about quantum mechanics. Schrödinger's colleague always said that Schrödinger's great job was made in a period in his life. To a certain extent, science will also thank this unknown girl. Go back to a relatively serious topic.

After chewing Debroji's mind, Schrödinger decided to use it into the description of the atomic system. We all already know that the energy of electrons in the atom is not continuous, which is fully confirmed by the discrete line of the atom. To describe this phenomenon, Bohr Qiang adds a "discrete level" assumption that Heisenberg uses his huge matrix, and exports this result after complex operation. Now that the turn is Xue Qixi. He said that it doesn't have to be so complicated. It doesn't have to introduce the external hypothesis. Just look at our electronics as Debroyibo, use a fluctuation equation to represent it, then it will. Schrödinger started to start from the Debroyi equation established on the relativistic basis, and promoted it to the bound particles. To this end, he has drawn an equation, but it is not very satisfactory because there is no case of electronic spin. At that time, the spin was just found soon, Schrödinger also known a half solution. So he turned back, starting from classic mechanics Hamilton-Eaxi equation, using variational method and Debroyi formula, finally find a non-relatively contrary fluctuation equation, using Greek letters ψ to represent the wave function The final form is such: △ ψ [8 (π ^ 2) m / h ^ 2] (E - V) ψ = 0 This is the Schrödinger wave function of the physics history of the 9th century. Of course, it is not necessary to discuss the multi-reader, we just know that some symbols have the meaning. Triangle △ is called "Laplas operator" representing some differential operation. h is the Planck constant we are well known. E is the total energy of the system, V is potential, and in the atomicity is -e ^ 2 / r. In the case of boundary conditions, we can solve this equation, we can calculate the E 's solving. If we solve the equation SIN (x) = 0, the answer will be a set of values, X can be 0, π, 2π, or Nπ. The function of SIN (X) is continuous, but the solution of the equation is discontinuous, depending on the integer n. Similarly, we solve E of the Schrodi equation will also get a set of separate answers, including quantified features: integer n. Our solution is indeed an experiment, and the mystery spectrum of atoms is no longer specially dedicated to the matrix mechanics. It can also be derived from the fluctuation equation. Now, we can understand why electrons can only run in some specific levels. Electronics have an intrinsic fluctuation frequency, we imagine the case of a guitar: When it is turned, it vibrates. But because the two heads of the guitar string are fixed, it can only form an integer. If a wavelength is 20 cm, then the length of the string is obviously only 20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm ... not 50 cm. Because it contains half a wave, thereby contradicting it to each other. If our chords have a circular track, just like an electronic track, then this "track" is obviously only certain specific values. If a wavelength is 20 cm, the circumference of the track can only be an integer multiple of 20 cm, otherwise it will not be connected to each other. From mathematics, this function is called "Eigenfunction), and the discrete solution is called" Eigenvalue ". So Schrödinger's paper is called "Quantizes is the problem of quantitative value". From January 1926, he has sent four papers in this question, thus thoroughly established another new mechanical system. - wave mechanics. In the middle of these four papers, he also wrote a papers "from the continuous transition of micro - mechanics", proved that ancient classic mechanics is only a special manifestation of new fluctuations, it is completely inclusive to fluctuating Mechanics interior. Schrödinger's equation was introduced, and the physicists in almost all over the world cheered.

Planck said it is "the work", Einstein said: "... Your idea is from the real genius." Your quantum equation has taken a decisive step. "Elan Fest Said: "I am fascinated by your theory and the new idea it brings. In the past two worships, our team will spend a few hours before the blackboard, trying to understand it from all angles." Schrödinger's equation is easy to understand. When people raise their heads from the strange labyrinth of the matrix, they will see the system that they are familiar with the system expressed in differential equations, they are like smelling the thinness of the soil, there is a kind The impulse of tears. However, this new system has also caused the attention of the matrix, those people in Copengen, and Copenhagen, especially Hesenburg, obviously dissatisfied with this "popular" explanation. Hesenburg said in the letter written to the bubble: "The more I think about the physical significance of Schrödinger's theory, the more I feel disgusting. Schrödinger's description of the image of his theory is meaningless, and it is said that That is purely a Mist. "Mist this German, basically equivalent to Bullshit or CRAP in English. Schrödinger is also free, in the paper, he said: "My theory is inspiration from Debulli ... I don't know if it has any inheritance in Hesson, I certainly know Hessoros. Theory, it is a lack of visualization, extremely difficult super algebraic method. Even if you don't completely exclude this theory, at least it is frustrated. "Matrix mechanics, or wave mechanics?" The new quantum is born less than a year, soon, it is already facing civil war.

II reviews the two different paths experienced in the development process in the development process are fun. The idea of ​​the first way is to directly from the observed atomic line, introduce the mathematical tools of the matrix, and build the whole new mechanical building with this strange square. It emphasizes the observed discrete, jumping, and adheres to the only orientation of mathematics, not confused by the intuitive experience of daily life. However, if it is investigated, it emphasizes the spectral line and its non-consecutive side, always see the vague figure of the particle forces. The core of this theory is naturally Hesensburg, Bonn, Jol, and their spiritual power behind them. The behind-the-scenes "Pope" is undoubtedly the great Niels Bols, Copenhagen. These relationships are closely scientists focus on resources and firepower, form a strong battle collective, making breakthroughs in a short time, thus establishing the spectacular fortress of matrix mechanics. People move alongside another road will be obviously loose in the organization. Caused, this is the point of dembroe as the point, and Schrödinger is a faction. In the creation of fluctuation, Einstein, which is a key guiding effect, is the spiritual leader behind them. But the political view of this theory is also very clear: it emphasizes the continuity of electrons as a wave to describe its behavior in fluctuating equations. It enthusiastically hugs an intuitive explanation, trying to restore the kind of fine tradition of classic mechanics, there is a strong retro tendency, but the revolutionary mood is not as high as the opponent. Taking a less appropriate alienary, the matrix advocated thorough radical reform, abandon the intuitiveness of the old theory, and the only foundation of mathematics is the left author of the revolution. The fluctuation is relatively conservative, it emphasizes the inheritance and classical concept, pays attention to the image of theory and physical significance, is the right to revolution. The two gods will intertwined every step in the development of quantum theory, thus bringing a very far-reaching impact on the entire natural philosophy of humans. In the previous section, we have mentioned that Heisenberg and Schrödinger express a disgusting dislikes to each other's theory (of course, between the private people have no irritation). They respectively determine that their own way is the only right. This is a natural phenomenon, because matrix mechanics and wave mechanics look like that, and the character of the two is known for winning and pride. When the declined Bohr Theory exits the historical stage, leave a powerful vacuum, there is no doubt that everyone wants to have the unpleasant glory. However, in April 1926, this confrontation has a slowed on the surface, Schrödinger, Bubble, Josh Dudous has their own prove, two mechanics is completely equivalent! In fact, we pursue their respective family history, and they found that they are from the classic Hamilton function, only one is starting from the sports equation from the particles, one is from the fluctuation equation. Optics and sports, I have already contacted it in Hamilton my efforts, which is really called "this is the same roots". Soon people already know that from the matrix, you can derive the expression form of the fluctuating function, and in turn, from the wave function can also export our matrix. In 1930, Dirac published the classic quantum mechanics textbook. The two mechanics were perfectly unified, and as a theoretical different expression in front of the reader. However, if anyone thinks it is peaceful, everything is big, it can be wrong. Although the two systems have been in the form of unity, from the deep ideology, the differences between them are getting bigger and bigger, soon it has formed an insurmountable divide. Mathematical consistency does not prevent people from interpretation of it, in terms of matrices, its intention is particle and discontinuous. And fluctuations are always talking about volatility and continuity.

The wave war now reached the climax, and the two sides found the government that can rely on, and upgraded the war again to the level of explanation of the entire physics. "Wave, only the wave is the only thing." Schrödinger said, "Whether it is electronically, the photons are good, or any particles are just a foam of the wave. They are essentially wave, you can Express the basic motion mode with the fluctuation equation. "" Never dare to match. "Heisenberg is back," the basic phenomenon of physical world is discrete, or discontinuous. A large number of experiments have proven this: Atom's spectra, to Compton's experiment, from photovoltaic phenomena, to the intensity of electronics in atoms, there is no sense of nature, it is not confusing. Your wave equation is of course a mathematics. Get happy achievements, but we must realize that we can't know it in terms of tradition - it is not that. "" It is the opposite. "Schrödinger said," It is the meaning. Wave function ψ (reading PSAI) In all directions, it can be seen as a certain vibration. In fact, we must imagine an electronic imagination into a resident vibration, the so-called electronic "transition", just it is vibration Change. There is no 'orbit', there is no 'energy level', only wave. "" Haha. "Heisenberg mock up," You are afraid that you have something to your own ψ, don't you understand? It's just In a virtual space, you have to imagine it into a real wave. In fact, we must not be misleaded by everyday visualty, then, electronic as classic particles Behavior You can't deny. "" Yes. "Schrödinger still refused to show weakness," I don't deny that it does demonstrate a similar quality. But just like a coconut, if you knock the hard of it. Shell, you will find the soft juice that is still fluctuations. Electrons are undoubtedly consisting of sinusoidal waves, but this wave is not large, and it can be seen as a 'wave package'. When this wave package As a whole, it looks like a particle. However, in essence, it is still wave, the particles are only a kind of derivative. "Just as everyone has already guessed, no one is Unable to convince each other. In July 1926, Schrödinger was invited to the University of Munich to teach his new mechanics. Heisenberg sat below, he stood up and criticized Xue Xikai, and the surgically found that the audience in the scene held opposition to him. Earlier, Boir's original assistant Kramer received a book of Utrecht, leaving Copenhagen, so Hesenberg became successive in this position - now he can live like a dream. The side of the side is working. Bol is also uneasy about Schrödinger's returning classic traditional, in order to solve this problem, he invited Schrödinger to Copenhagen for an academic visit, and strive to reach a certain agreement in communication. At the end of September, Schrödinger arrived in Copenhagen, and Boir came to the train station to pick him. The debate has been launched from that moment, day night, there is no end, until Schrödinger will finally leave Copenhagen. Heisenberg later recalled this meeting in his "partial and overall" book, he said, although Daily Tibo is like a kind person, but once he is involved in this physical debate, he looks like Like a paranoid fan, it will never compromise. The debate is of course physical issues, but it has become a philosophical dispute to a large extent. Schrödinger can't believe that there is an actual meaning of "unimaginable" theory. Boore insists that the concept of image chemistry is impossible to use in the quantum process, it cannot be described in daily language.

They fiercely quarreled at night during the day, and finally Schrödinger was exhausted. He quickly ill paged, he had to lying on the bed, and his wife Magiti was taken care of by Boir. Even so, Boir is still not inappropriate. He rushed into the ward and stood in the bedside of Schrödinger and continued to debate. Of course, the last thing is futile, no one is persuaded by the other person. The air industry in the physics community has become very hot. The classic theory has collapsed, and now the matrix mechanics and wave force learn two buildings, and they are in touch with each other, and they should be considered in theory. However, the foundations of the two buildings are still not related to each other, which makes some mouthfuls in the surface. Moreover, fluctuations and microparticles, the enemy in two 300 years is still fighting hard, refuses to take a step back from your own territory. Both sides still claim that they have all sovereignty for light, electricity, and physical phenomena, and opponents are illegal armed forces, and are anti-government organizations. Now Schrödinger joins the wave camp, and he even provides a complete constitution in fluctuations, which is his fluctuation equation. In Schrödinger's view, the fluctuations represent the glory from Huyuis, Yang has arrived at the old days of Maxwell, and this aristocratic tradition must be reserved and carried forward in new countries. Schrödinger believes that the concept of fluctuating this concise image will rule the Physical World again, thus bringing everything to a unified image. Unfortunately, Schrödinger guess wrong. The fluctuation will soon be discovered that their constitution has a more deep meaning. From the word line, we can read some hidden meaning, it said that the world is public, which party can't exclusive, both parties must talk to, then form a joint government to rule. It also discloses more amazing secrets: the two sides have an unsubalypted relationship between the blood. Finally, just like the Memans's priests, it predicted that under this joint rule, physics will become extremely different: more wonderful, more mysterious, and more prosperous. A wonderful prophecy. ******** After gossip: Schrödinger's girlfriend November 2001, the new Matthew Wells of Matthew Wells, "Schrodinger's Girfriend" San Francisco's famous Fort Mason Center premiere. This comedy founded the history of the history of the volatility in 1926, the history of the mysterious girlfriend, and explored the relationship between love, sex, and quantum physics. This year (2003), this script moved to the East Coast and was also welcomed. In recent years, a drama created with scientific characters and scientific history has created the wind. In addition to this "Schrödinger's girlfriend", I am afraid that more famous is the Teni Award winner, Michael Frayn's "Copenhagen". However, there are several girlfriends in the case of Xue Xing, and it is really a difficult thing. The physico master's morality is clearly and a certain distance from ordinary people. His weird behavior has always been excluded. In 1912, he almost gave up academics in order to like a girl, and change its own family company (at the time, he didn't make money very much in the university). Before he met Anne Mary, Schrödinger loved the 4 young girls, and mainly It is a spiritual love relationship. In this regard, Schrödinger's main biographic author, Walter Moore 说, can not simply see it as a indulgence. If the above is normal, Schrödinger after marriage is a little unfamiliar. He and Anne's marriage path never settled harmony, and the two did not live in life.

And after the abundance of flowers, S Xue did not do less, he did not hide this for his wife. Annie, in turn, and Schrödinger's best friend, Hermann Weyl, maintained a relationship (Will's own wife, but also in the other person, it is too dark). The two discussed divorce, but Annie's Catholic belief and expensive handling fees stopped this happening. "Schrödinger's girlfriend" was laughed in the play: "Is it difficult for the banyan nature of the wave - particles, or is it a wife - the language of the lover is more difficult?" Schrödinger, according to some kind of popular statement, belongs to that "Passionate Seed". He invited others to do his assistant, but it was actually a wife. This woman (Hilde March) later gave birth to a daughter, amazing, Anne is very happy to take care of this baby. Schrödinger and the two women have opened their lives. In fact, there is a life of a wife and one (this is still a legal wife), which is too shocking, and the result can't stand in Oxford and Princeton, I have to leave. His history can also take a long string, including female students, actors, OL, have left a number of illegitimate sons. However, Schrödinger is not venting, his inner heart has a strong romantic impulse, in accordance with Duan Zhengxiao, and every woman is together, it is dead, and I can't wait to pull it out. I wrote it. A lot of love poems. I hope everyone should not think that I am too gossip. In fact, the analysis of love is an important part of Schrödinger's research. It helps us understand the unique inner psychology of this scientist with personal color. The most surprised is that such a marriage of Schrödinger has almost a perfect ending. Despite all kinds of wind waves, he and Anne have eventually goes to the old, as I said in the oath: To haveid, in Sickness and In Health, Till Death Parts US. In the last period of Schrödinger's life, the two have already reached an understanding, and Annie said: "In the past 41 years, the joys and sorrows have combined us together. This last year we don't want to separate." Schrödinger finally Anne held his hand in front of his bed, Schrödinger said: "Now I have you again, everything is getting better." Schröding was buried in Alpbach, and his cemetery was covered by white snow. Four years later, Anne Mary? Schrödinger also stopped breathing. __________________

In 1926, although the matrix and wave sentiments were still uncomfortable in their heart, they were uniformly unified on the surface. Moreover, there is no accidental, Schrödinger's fluctuation equation is in its own, concise, easy to learn, the characteristics of most physicists, soon, in the form of wind. Although Hesenburg and his boulevard's square matrix is ​​not happy, he has only accepted reality. It turns out that in addition to the predominant of the matrix in the processing of several problems on spins, other time the fluctuations have taken almost all popularity. Actually, physicists and public imagines are very different. Few people like that hard-to-blame math, since the two systems have been proven to have equality in mathematics, everyone is happy to choose that look Simple familiar. Even inside the matrix, the fluctuation equation has also been welcomed. The first is the teacher of Heisenberg, and then one of the core characters of the matrix mechanics, and another mentor in Heisenberg Marcos. Bonn. Bonn was enthusiastic about his achievements soon, saying that the wave equation is the most profound form of quantum law. It is said that Heisenberg is very sad about this "rebellion" of Bonn. However, Heisenberg has not been concerned, and Bonn's approval of Schrödinger's equation does not indicate that he chooses and Xue Qixi standing in the same trench. Because although the equation is determined, how to explain it is a big problem. First, people want to ask, Schrödinger's wave function ψ (then reminding it, this greek word reads into PSAI), what is the meaning of physical representative? Let's review Schrödinger's idea of ​​establishing a fluctuation equation: he starts from the classic Hamilton equation, constructing a new function of a system ψ, then refer to Debroyi relationship and variational method, and finally find an equation And answers, this is very different from physics in our impression. Usually we will think that there is a definition of physical quantities, and then talk about the mathematical relationships of them. For example, we know the concept of force f, acceleration A and mass M, will then understand the meaning of f = mA. However, modern physics pathways may often be reversed. For example, physicists are likely to define a function f, let F = MA, then look for F, the physical meaning of F, and find that it is a measure of force. Schrödinger's ψ, is a certain distribution function defined in space, just what people still don't know what it is. This looks quite fun, because physicists have to sit down and guess. Now let's relax, imagine that he is at a party, the host arranges a fun guessing program for everyone to come. "Mr. Ms.," he announced in a great place, "Let's play a guessing game, who first guesses what this box is, who can get the highest honor at the party." Everyone fixed his eyes. The big box seems to be heavy, it's really like hidden things, the antique in the box has written a few big characters: "Schrödinger Equation". "Well, but I can't see anything. How do you guess?" People complained. "Of course, Of course." The host quickly said, "We are not learning Sun Wukong to play the partition guess, then say that this is never broken, it is the baby's baby. Well, Yes, In this case, although we can't see it, it can be known, I will continue to tell you everyone, see who first guess. "Everyone missed, so the game started. "This thing, we don't know his name, the famous name is ψ." The host cleared the door, "I can tell you that it represents a function of electronics in the atomic system.

"The next steps are seven tongues:" Energy? frequency? speed? distance? time? Charge? quality? "The host had to raise the voice:" Quiet, Quiet, we have just started, don't mess. From now on who guess wrong, you will lose qualifications. "So the moment of the chop is silent." Okay. "The host said with satisfaction," So we continue. The second condition is this: Through my observation, I found this ψ is a continuous thing. "This time, everyone didn't dare to talk, but everyone quickly made it in their hearts. Since we are continuous, then the quantified conditions we know are excluded. For example, we have already known that electronic energy level is not continuous Then, it looks like this. "Next, it can be seen by the structure of ψ, this is a function that has no dimension. But it has some links with the location of the electronics. For each electronics, it extends in a virtual 3D space. "Some people have been confused here. Only a few thinking is still just thinking about it." In spell, ψ If the film is accompanied by every electronics, in the position it is like a cloud like a cloud Open. This cloud is thick and thin, but it is evolved in a certain way. Moreover, I will emphasize that this diffusion and evolution are classic, continuous, determined. "So everyone caught in meditation, there is no shortage." Yes, cloud, this metaphor is trick. "At this time, a man with a face, wearing a nose, huh, huh, huh, huh, huh, huh, huh, huh, said," Mr. Ladies, this is the discoverer of Schrödinger, and the discoverer of this treasure chest. "Everyone is applauded, and then the position is condensed to listen to what is high." Well, things are already obvious, ψ is a spatial distribution function. Schrödinger said, "" When it and the electric charge of the electron, represent the actual distribution of charge in space. Cloud, respected, electronics is not a particle, it is a wave, like the clouds are generally expanded around the space. Our function describes this extension and its behavior. Electronics do not have a specific location, it has no specific path because it is a cloud, it is a wave, it extends to each direction - although the attenuation is very fast, this makes it crude look like a particle. Mr. Ladies, I think this discovery is that we must clear all the fakes about the particles from the mind. Whether it is electronics, the photons are good, what is the kind, they are not that Particles in the traditional sense. Pull them out to zoom in, carefully examine them, you will find it to melt in space and become an overlay of countless vibration. Yes, an electronic, it is smeared, just like the butter coated on the bread, it usually shrinks so tight, so that we all treat it as a small ball, but this has been proved by our wave function. Really. Over the years, physics is wrong, our head is confused by spectral lines, jumps, energy levels, matrices. Now, it is time to return to classic. "This treasure chest," Schrödinger pointed to the big box, "is a heritage, it is the king of Solomon, who has been the legendary Empire. It always reminds us, don't be tempting to the evil road, go to the road that cannot be turned back. Physics needs to be reform, but it is not allowed to confuse the thoughts. We have already listened enough to talk about weird, such as e-like fleas to jump in the atom, like a drunken that is completely unpredictable.

There is also the so-called matrix that gave a declaration, no one knows what physical meaning, but it keeps orthodox orthodox orthodox. No, now let us return to the solid land, this giant has struggled to build the land, which has been a majestic land, which is full of pride and glorious land. Simple, clear, beautiful, intuitive, continuous, image, this is the victory of the kingdom of physics, and it is passed down to the victory. I have no doubt that new mechanics will make a continuous fluctuation, and everything is attributed to a simple image, and inherit the old royal life. This is no longer watching, because this kind of blood carries the soul of modern science for 300 years. This is a symbol of physics, and its sacred status is declares that anyone can't do it. "Schrödinger's extensive speech undoubtedly infected the most of the audience present, because there was a warm applause and cheering in the crowd. However, wait, there is a person who is constantly shaking his head, seeing not to make a look, Schrödinger Soon I recognized that it is the teacher of Göttingen, Heisenberg. Is he just praised his equation? Is it not necessary to use him? "Well Mr. Xue Qinger, "Bonn clearly stood up and said," First of all, I still have to praise your findings, which is undoubtedly a rareity, not everyone has such a lucky achievement. Schrödinger nodded and relaxed. "But," Bonn said, "Can I ask you a question?" Although this is what you find, I don't really open the box, look at what is it? "This is greatly embarrassed, he will answer for a while:" To be honest, I have not really seen something inside, because I don't have a box of the box. "Everyone is shocked." If this is the case, "Bohen said carefully," I thought, I don't quite agree with the guess you just now. " "Oh? "The two people have paid for a while, S Xue Dingyu finally said:" So what exactly what exactly? " "There is no doubt," Bonn stared at the box with classical patterns and its heavy big locks above it, "it hides some criminal things, its power is enough to change the face of the entire physics. . However, I also have a kind of premonition, this is so powerful, it will make physics to get up. Of course, you can also change the words, bringing boundless confusion for physics. " "Oh, is it so? "Schrödinger said surprised," When this is said, is it Pandora's box? " "Ok. "Born nodded," people will fall into a confusion and debate, and the physics society will become a fantasy world that is difficult to understand. Honestly, although I vaguely guessed what is it, I still can't sure it should not take it out. "Schrödinger stared at Ben:" We all believe in science power, it dares to look directly at all facts, do not hesitate to face it, check it, grasp it, no matter what it is. What's more, even the Pandora box, we have at least the most precious thing in the bottom of the box, is you forgotten? "" Yes, it is hope. "Bonn grows up," You said, no matter whether it is a blessing, we have at least hope. Only there is a debate, physics has the future. "So, you said that this box is ...?" "The whole game is silent, everyone does not dare to speak.

Bonn suddenly smiled mysteriously: "I guess, this is ..." "" "" Dice. "Four dice? What is the dice? It should appear in the karagon game, should appear in the casino in Macau and Las Vegas, but physics? No, it is not where it should come. The dice represents the speculation, represents uncertain, and physics is not the most strict, most sure that is most strict, can you tolerate? It is conceivable that when Bonn brought the dice into physics in July 1926, it caused what anxiety. Around this core explanation, the argument is intense, and physics is heated to the boiling point. This topic is so controversial, soon triggeting the most famous big argument in the history of the 20th century, and poor Bonn has been in the past 28 years, only because of this outstanding discovery, Nobel bonus - - Many of the students than his students. Anyway, we still have to see what Bonn said. Dice, this is the explanation of Schrödinger Wave Function, which represents a random, one probability, and is never understood by Schrödinger, which is the actual distribution of electron charges in space. Bonn crossed, ψ, or more accurate, the square of ψ, represents the "probability" that the electronic appears in a certain location. The electronic itself is not expanded like a wave, but its appearance probability is like a wave, which is strictly in accordance with the distribution of ψ. Let's recall the double sewing interference experiment of electronics or photons, which is the best proof of electronic volatility. When the electron passes through the two slits, it constitutes a brightly dark pattern on the induction screen, showing the mutual enhancement and offset of peaks and troughs. However, as the particle art pointed out, each electronic will only make a small point on the screen, only the entire pattern will be gradually formed only when the components of the components pass through the double seam. Now let's make a thinking experiment, imagine that we have a instrument, which only emits an electronic. This electron passes through the double seam, hit on the sensitance screen, exciting a small highlight. So, what can we say for this electronic? Obviously, we cannot predict that it makes the interference stripes of the type of wave, because an electronic will only leave a point. In fact, what is the place on the screen for this electronics, we are not there, repeat our experiments many times, it sometimes appears here, sometimes there, is not a determination process. However, we can find a lot of observations, but it can be found that this electronics is not completely unregulated: it has a large possibility in some places, and it is small in other places. It has high frequencies, which is precisely the lift of the interference stripes predicted by fluctuations, and there is a low frequency, and it corresponds to the dark. Now we can understand why a large number of electronics can constitute interference stripes, because although each electron's behavior is random, this random distribution of total mode is determined, it is an interference fringe pattern. This is like we throwing a dice, although every dice throws, its results are completely random, it is possible from 1 to 6, but if you throw a lot of dice to the ground, then count the number of each point You will find that the results of 1 to 6 are almost average. The key is that single electronics always appear with a point, it never likes to make a beach pattern on the screen like Schrödinger. Only a large number of electronics are followed in two, and the total interference pattern will gradually appear. Among them, there is a relatively large number of electronic hits, in other words, the single electron is relatively easy to appear, and the dark belt is just the opposite.

If we find that 90% of the particles are gathered in the bright belt, only 1% of the particles are in the dark belt, then we can predict that for a single particle, it has 90% of the possibly in the zone, 10% It may appear in the dark band. However, where is it, we are unable to determine, we can only predict the probability. We can only predict the probability. But, wait, how do we dare to say this? Isn't this a big dear for ancient physics? Since Galileo Newton, thousands of the ancestors have been painful for this science, and the building has such a magnificent construction. Its strength ruled the entire universe, from the largest galaxy to the smallest atom, all things are in its power It will be devoted to it. Any huge or subtle movement can't escape its power. There is a terrible collision between the galaxies, released the unimaginable light and hot, and the birth of a new star; the cosmic rays cross distant space in an amazing high-speed, witness the time of the ancient times; miniators You push me, noisy; the earth is solemn around the sun, its own rotating shaft is slightly vibrated at the same time; the hard rock gradually weathers with the time of the time; the birds put its wings By flying through the airflow. All of this is not all meticulously under the monitoring of physical law? More importantly, physics not only explains the past and now, it can also predict the future. Our laws and equations can predict the trajectory of an artillery and its landing place; we can predict the eclipse after thousands of years, always to second; give me a circuit map, more complications, I Can tell what it will do; we manufacture the machine to operate in advance in advance. In fact, for any system, just give me enough initial information, give me enough computing power, I can calculate all the history of this system, from it to start running, until it is fate in the distant future, Everything is not secret. Yes, all systems, even the dice is the same. Tell me the size, quality, texture, initial speed, height, angle, air resistance, the texture of the table, the friction coefficient, tell me all the information you need, then, as long as I have enough computing ability, I can have no helves Pre-tell you, this dice will throw a few more. Physics rule the entire universe, its past and future, everything is in progress. This has become a deep belief in the heart of physics. At the beginning of the 19th century, France's large scientist Pierre Simon de Laplace was placed in the planet track with Newton equation, showing it to Napoleon. Napoleon asked: "Where is God in your theory?" Laplas replied calm: "Your Majesty, my theory doesn't need this hypothesis." Yes, what is God in physics? " ? Everything is ruled by physical law, each of which follows physical law to run. If God has any effect, he has pushed this system at the beginning, so that it started to run. In the long history, there is no need to have a matter of God, and God has driven out the stage by physics. "I don't need God this assumption." Lapus said in front of Napoleon. This can be found in one of the most glorious moments of science, which spreads boundless and proud to every scientist.

Not only don't need God, Laplas imagine, if we have a fairy, a great wish, or any people with enough wisdom, if he can understand at some moment, the movement of all the universal molecules, then he can Dressed from the opposite direction, thereby giving the state of the universe at any time. For such a wise, there is no past and future, everything is alive. The universe started from the moment of its birth, it fell into a predetermined track, which strictly followed the physical law, without any route, until I met the destined fate. Just like you shoot, then, this is a three-pointer, or play a basketball play, or an air ball, this is the moment you have made it, then we can do it, just look at it. According to the development of a good script. Yes, scientists know the past; yes, scientists understand; yes, scientists understand the future. As long as you have the law, just collect enough intelligence, as long as you can deal with enough big computation, scientists can don't know what God is generally. The entire universe is just a precision machine. Its idea is classical and strict decisions in accordance with the law. From the moment of birth, there is a determined fate. We can't understand it now, just because the information we know is too small. So many genius before, so many great people have been painstaking, so many explorations in the dark, struggle, struggle, this is condensed into the whole glory of physics in the 19th century golden era. The physicist can finally say that they can predict the mysterious universe because they find the mystery of the universe. When they said this, with a sacred and inviolable emotions, they never forgive any people who dared to underestimate the physical strength. However, some people now say that physical can't predict electronic behavior, it can only find the probability of electronics. In any case, we have no way to determine where the single electron will appear, we can only guess, 90% of the electronics may appear here, 10% may appear there. Isn't this a provocation of the whole physical history, an insulting of the glory of physics and dignity? Can we determine? Physics's dictionary is not this word. In the physics test in the middle school, the topic gave us a small ball's initial parameters, asked T always, do you dare to write "I can't be sure"? If you do this, your physics will be angry with your eyes and don't hesitate to brighten a red light. Not sure? It is impossible to determine what physics can be determined. It is true that sometimes it is for convenience, we will also introduce some statistics, such as handling a lot of air molecular exercise, but it is a completely different problem. Scientists are only mortals, and they cannot handle such complex calculations, so the shortcuts of statistics are applied. But in theory, as long as we understand the status of each molecule, we can fully infer the behavior of the entire system, unhappy. However, Bonn's explanation is not the case. Bonn means that even if we measure the initial state of electronics, even if we have the most powerful computer to calculate the impact of all environments, even so, we can't predict the last electronically Accurate position. This uncertainty is not caused by insufficient computing power, it is an attribute that is deep in physical law itself. Even in theory, we can't accurately predict nature.

This is no longer overthrowing a theoretical problem, which is the challenge of the entire decision system, and the decision is the foundation of the entire science that. Quantum Theory Challenges the entire science. Bonn wrote in the paper: "... The problem of the entire decision here is the problem." This is an unforgivable hypothesis for many physicists. dice? uncertain? Do not make jokes. For some of them, the reason why physics is so fascinating, it is because of its profound, clarity, can determine everything, clear all the doubts, which makes them involved in this business. Go in. Now, physics has turned into a rocker machine, but it is necessary to become a gambler of a dice to determine the destiny. How can this tolerate? uncertain? An unprecedented big argument is about to start, and it is excited, trembling, desperate, tears behind the quarrel and debate, with the whole decision on the sad curtain curtain of the 20th century. ******** After meals, gossip: The decision can say that the rise and fall of the decision has concentrated on the history of the whole, natural science in the 20th century. Scientific from Newton and Laplas came, and brilliant success made it proud to forget it, think it has the ability to predict everything. The decision believes that all things have been stipulated by physical law, and even a detail cannot be changed. In the past and the future, it is like a script that has been written. The development of the universe can only be carried out strictly according to this script, and this is unable to jump out of this. The decisions of the paid first were first challenged by quantum theory in the 20th century, and then the rise of chaotic kinetics made it completely beaten. Now we already know that even if there is no quantum theory gives nature, the Newton Equation itself, many systems are also extremely unstable, any fine interference can have a great impact on the development of the system, poor It is a thousand miles away. These interferences are essentially unpredictable, so I want to predict the entire system in theory. It is also not feasible. Typical examples are long-term weather forecasts. Everyone may have heard of Lorenz's famous "butterfly effect", even if a butterfly is slightly fanned, it can cause dramatic changes to the entire weather system. The current weather forecast has also generally reused the probability, such as "Tomorrow's precipitation probability is 20%". In 1986, the famous fluid mechanics authority, James Lighthill (Sir James Lighthill), from Dirac, from Dirac Bridge, Professor Luca, Cambridge in 1969, is also the one who has taken it as Newton) Yu Royal Society commemorating Newton "Principles" published a sensation of the 300th anniversary: ​​"Now we are deeply realized that our predecessors have worshiped the amazing achievements of Newton's mechanics, which makes them summed it into one Prophet system. And telling the truth, we have also preferred to believe this statement before 1960, but now we know this is wrong. We used to mislead the public, propagate to the system that satisfies Newton's laws. Decisive, but this has been proven to be true after 1960. We are willing to express apologize to the public.

"(We are all deeply conscious today that the enthusiasm of our forebears for the marvelous achievements of Newtonian mechanics led them to make generalizations in this area of ​​predictability which, indeed, we may have generally tended to believe before 1960, but which we now recognize were false. We collectively wish to apologize for having misled the general educated public by spreading ideas about the determinism of systems satisfying Newton's laws of motion that, after 1960, were to be proved incorrect.) decided to collapse on whether destined to free will Rise? This is worth exploring in philosophy. In fact, after quantum theory, physics is increasingly trapped in the controversy. Maybe Metaphysics should change a name called "Metaquantum). Before our history, we will explore these questions in detail. Ian Stewart wrote a book about chaos, the title is also called "God throwing the dice". This book is beautiful, it is worth reading, of course and us There is no connection in the history. I use this name, one side is to emphasize the rise and fall of the decisiveness is the center of our history, in addition, Einstein's famous name is quantified.

Five, in our departure, the new quantum theory and the classic decisiveness, the finals of this chapter, let us first pay attention to the historical legacy, which is our particles and fluctuations. Bonn's probability explanation is undoubtedly a heavy blow to Schrödinger's traditional fluctuations. Now, the particles seem to be temporarily happy. "Look," it laughed at the opponent, "Schrödinger couldn't save you, and his explanation of his waves is not enough. It is no wonder that Schrödinger's equation is smarter than Schrödinger. Bonn's probability is It makes sense, the electron is always an electron, at any time you observe it, it is a particle, you have a noisy for many years, the "probability" that is just that I can't touch. Haha, let this title I have no objection, but you have to recognize my orthodox status. "But the fluctuations have not been intimidated, to tell the truth, the two sides of 300 years of grievances, after so many wind and rain, I have already practiced it. The skills. "Oh, is it?" It calmly responded, "I am afraid that things are not as simple as you think? We better reduce the size of the electronic, how do you feel the experience in double seam experiments?" Microparticles hesitated I have accepted: "Ok, let you die thoroughly." So, now let us also imagine yourself to narrow the electronic size, follow it together to see what happened. An electronic diameter is less than 100 million, which is 10 ^ -23 meters. Its quality is less than 10 ^ 30 kg, it is so small, it seems to be a wonderful journey. Ok, now we have been as big as an electronics, suddenly shrinking so much, it is really uncomfortable, and the world who looks out has also become blurred. However, we found that the world is so empty, almost empty, this is also the same, from our scale, the nuclear nucleus should be like a far side? Ok, now I have an electronics, this is a good opportunity, let us open your eyes, look at it carefully, is it a particle or wave? Weird, why do we see anything? Ah, I have forgotten a key fact! To "see", you must have light to enter our eyes. But now we have so small, even if it is light - no matter whether it is a photon or light wave - it is too big for us. But in order to explore this secret, we have to find the light reflected from the electronic, with a feeling, I know that I have come from the left (whose "a group" light is because I don't know it. Is it a light particle or a light wave, no light, I can't see the light itself, is it?), Now let us be brave, ah, secret is to unveil! With the "", we were hit by this group of light, and then he could not help but fly in half of the air, it was popped up to 100,000 miles. This hit makes us tend to go, the brain is sphericed, and he will take the Venus in front of him. We forgot what size is it now! If you are lucky, this collision has already given our little life. When I got up, I didn't know where I didn't know where I was, and the electronics were more shadowless. Just is a good risk, it seems that this trick is not good. However, I heard the voice, it is the particle and fluctuations in front of the argument, let's follow the brother to see it.

They start from a cathode ray tube in order to simulate an electronic approach, now, in front of it is the famous double seam. "Hey, particles." Wave said, "If the electron is a particle, how can it act next? There are two sections in front of you, it can only choose one of them, if it is a particle, it is impossible to two By? "" Well, it's right. "The particles said," The particles are a small point, which is indisparable. I think, the electronic must choose to pass a certain slit, then projected on the back light screen I have inspired a little bit. "" But "," How can I act in accordance with the probability of interference mode? For example, it passes from the right side, when it hits the screen, it How can I know that there should be 90% of the opportunity to appear in the liven area, 10% of the opportunity to leave a dark zone? To know that this interference stripe is closely related to the distance between the two slits, if electronic only With a seam, how does it know how the distance between the two sections? "The particles are a bit embarrassed, it is hesitant to say:" I also admit that along with a certain wave of a wave of electricity, it is Schrödinger Wave function ψ, Bonn said it is the probability, we assume that it is a probability wave. You can imagine some kind of visible field that I can't get out of my body, I think, I passed Before the double seam, this could have been filled in the space, detected the distance between the doubles, so that I can know how to strictly follow the probability. However, my entity must only pass it. A seam. "" Little truth is not. "Wave shook his head," We may wish to imagine a scenario, if electron is a particle, it is now decided to pass the slit on the right. Just believe in you, there is some kind The probability wave prior detects the distance between the seams, so that it is bamboo to know how to act. However, if it enters the moment before the slit, some people turn off another slit, which is the slit on the left, then What is happening? "The particles have a little bit of face. "At that time," fluctuations continue to say, "There is no double seam, only single seam. Electronics pass through a seam, it doesn't matter what intervene. That is, when the left slit is closed, the probability of electrons must be immediately The interference mode is converted into normal mode, which becomes a long slope. "" Now, I will ask, how the electron is in a moment before passing through the slit, I know that the other slit is related to the facts? It is a small electronic, another slit is so distant, just like from Shanghai to look at Los Angeles in the ocean. How can it instantly respond, modify its probability distribution? Unless it received Signals from a instant transmission, how do you want to be opposed? "" Well, "said the particles said that" then, I will listen to your explanation. "" It's very simple, "said fluctuations. "Electron is a wave of spreading in space. It passes two slits at the same time. Of course, this is the reason why it causes perfect interference. If you close a slit, then obviously close a part The path of the wave, there is no interference. "" It sounds very good. "The particles said," So you said, ψ is some actual wave, it passes through two slits, completely determined and continuous Distributed, until the induction screen before hitting.

However, what about it? What happened afterwards? "After", "the fluctuation is a little sentence," after some reason, ψ shrink into a small point. "Ha, it's really wonderful." "The particles deliberately pull the sound to be carried out," Your diffusion and continuous wave suddenly become a small point! What happened? The wave family suddenly strikes? "The wave is angry and red, and it is argued:" For a mechanism that we are still unclear ... "" Well, "the particles said impatiently," Practice is the only standard for inspection truth? " Since I said that the electronics only passed a slit, and you said that it passed two slits at the same time, so who did our two do not miss anyone? As long as we install some kind of instrument in both slits, let it have a particle - or wave, no matter what - the passage records or issues an alarm, will it become? This instrument is not complicated and unsuccessful. "Wave to look at particles in a strange eye, for a long time, it finally said:" Good, we can install this instrument. " I admit that once we tried to determine which sewing of electronics, we will only find electronics at one of them. Two instruments will not ring at the same time. "The particles laughed:" You can't say it early? Harm, we will have so much water! Why, this will not prove, the electronics may only be a particle, can it only pass a slit each time? You still have anything to me! "But it gradually found that the atmosphere is a bit wrong, and finally it can't laugh." How? "It looked at the fluctuation. The fluctuation suddenly smiled:" Good, each time we can only measure the electron with a sewing. However, once we start this measurement, the interference stripes have disappeared ... "... Time is in February 1927, Copenhagen is still spring cold, and the earth is a frost. Boir sitting in his office If you think: Particles or Wave? 5 months ago, Schrödinger's visit was also eye-catching. The whole Copenhagen school in order to cope with this hard battle, spent some time to study his volatility theory, but now, glass Suddenly, this volatility theory is very good. It is simple, clear, it is not so bad. Bohr has called "a wonderful theory" in writing to Hevesi, Bohr has called "a wonderful theory". Especially After the probability of Bonn, Boir has not hesitially prepared to accept this theory and treat it as a quantum theory. Well, fluctuate, fluctuations. Bohr knows that Heisenberg is now simply It is the condition that the conditions are disgusted. Only matrix mathematics in his eyes, if you mention Schrödinger, he is anxious, Lian Bohe is no exception. In fact, due to the transformation of Bolbus attitude I have made a crack in the Copenhagen in Copenhagen. Hesenburg ... He didn't dare to believe his ears after learning Boir's opinion. Now, the atmosphere is already enough, Boir is not Let the situation have deteriorated, ready to leave Denmark to Norwegian long holiday. In the past 1926, it was spent in the endless quarrel. The whole year of Boir only published a small article about spinning, it is time to stop arguing. However, particle? Wave? That idea is always entangled in his mind. Go in a person, is his other assistant Oscar. Oskar Klein. His achievements in the past year, he Not only the Schrödinger equation is relatively discussed, but also introduced the idea of ​​"fifth dimension", which has received the enthusiasm of Lao Lunz.

Anyway, he can be one of the most familiar people who are most familiar with quantum fluctuations in Copenhagen. There is he helped out, Boho believes that Hesenburg has a prejudice, and the volatility theory is not biased. "To unify, to be unified." Bol is muttered. Klein raised his head to see him: "What do you think about the volatility theory?" "Wave, electronics is undoubtedly a wave." Bolfly said. "Oh, that's said ..." "" "" "" Boir interrupted him, "it is not a wave. Since the BKS inverted Taiwan, I have vaguely guessed." Klein smiled: "You intend to publish this Is a point of view? "" No, it's still not time. "" Why? "Bai Lu sighed a breath:" Klein, our opponent is very powerful ... very powerful, I am not ready ... "(Note: Old The statement believes that the complementary principle is only formed after the uncertain principle. But now the scholars agree, this idea has a complex source, in order to leave the grades to the next chapter, I will bring a wave problem in here. .)

Chapter VII Unexpectedity One Our History said that it is time to review the route. How did we see the classic physical building of Shu Hecheng, how to fell, and we have seen a guestrian problem, and the quantum assumption of Prance is how to ignite the fire of the new revolution. After this, Einstein's light quantum theory gives the new quantum to enrich the power, let it stand up and get up and arrogantly, and Bol's atomic theory has made a new world. Come. We have also said that the two theories of light, particles and volatility are how to continue to confront from 300 years ago, and there is a Baiyun Cang Dog, and the sea is in the sea. From Debroe, this essential contradiction has become the basic problem of physics, and Heisenberg has created his matrix mechanics from discontinuities. Schrödinger also found his fluctuations along another continuous road. equation. Although these two theories have been equivalent to mathematics, their physical significance has caused extensive debates. Bonn's probability interpretation has pushed the doubt of the stage for hundreds of years, and became the focus on the rips. . On the other hand, the wars of fluctuations and particles are now the most critical. Connect, some truly strange things will occur in physics. It will transform people's philosophical concepts into a madness of madness and turn physics itself into a large vortex. The most famous argument in the 20th century is about to start, and its impact has been slid to today. We have already gone so long, and now we are exhausted, but we can't turn around. Back to the first place, Bai Yun covers the return, returning to the classic theory, it is impossible, and it is in front of us, there is only one long and rugged road, and it has always been distant and unknown. Now, let us have the greatest courage, follow the physicists to move forward, go to see what is hidden at this road, what is a scene. We returned to February 1927, the magical winter. For the past few months, it is like a nightmare, more and more people turn to Schrödinger and his death fluctuation theory, forgetting his matrix. The excellent papers of Hesenburg now, now rewriting people into an alternative form of fluctuating equations, which makes him especially tolerate. He later said to the bubble, "For each matrix papers, people have rewritten it into the form of 'conjugate', which makes me very annoying. I think they are best two ways. "But, let him be sad, it is undoubtedly Boir also turned to his opposite. Boir, that he regarded Yan Shi, Cishi, and Liangyou's Bohr, which is called "Quantum Theory Pope", the chief commander and spiritual leader of the Copenhagen Legion, now actually against him! This makes Hessoros feel incomparable and sad. Later, when Boir criticized his theory again, Heisenberg even became tears. For Hesenburg, Boir is unique in his mind. He has lost his support. Heisenberg feels like a child in the river. However, now Boir has been going to Norway, he is probably on skiing? Heisenberg remembers that Boir's ski level is very bad, can't help but smile. Bluo is no longer available, and he is now hugging into a group, focusing on what a relatively discovered fluctuations are concentrated. fluctuation! Heisenberg snorted, killing him, he did not admit that electrons should explain into fluctuations. However, things are not bad, and he still have a few comrades: old friends bubble, Gormat, and Dirac - he is now going to Copenhagen to visit.

Not long ago, Dirak and Jolder have developed a conversion theory, which makes Hessoros to handle some probability issues that have been handled by Schrödinger Corchere. Let Hessianburg are happy in Dirac's theory, discontinuous is used as a foundation, which makes him believe that Schrödinger's explanation is reliable. However, if there is a discontinuous as a premise, some variables in this system are difficult to explain, for example, an electronic trajectory is always continuous? Heisenberg tried to recall the history of matrix mechanics, I want to see where the problem is. We still remember that the assumptions at the time of Hesenburg were that the entire physical theory can only be premised on the amount that can be observed, and only these variables are determined to constitute the basis of any system. However, Heisenberg remembers that Einstein does not agree with this. He is too strong in classical philosophy and is an unpleasant aquary. "You don't really believe that only the amount of observable can be eligible to enter physics?" Einstein once asked him. "Why not?" Hesenburg said, "When you create a relativity, isn't it because 'absolute time' can't observe it?" Einstein laughed: "It's good to play twice. You have to know that in principle, trying to establish theory only on the amount of observable to build theory is wrong. The fact is just the opposite: It is the theory to determine what we can observe. "Yes? Theory determines what we observed? So how to explain the trajectory of an electronic in the cloud room? In Schrödinger, this is a series of stacked superimposed, but Forget Him! Heisenberg said to himself, or uses our more orthodox matrix to explain. However, the matrix is ​​discontinuous, and the trajectory is continuous, and the so-called "trajectory" has been abandoned when the matrix is ​​created when the matrix is ​​created ... The night vermor is quiet, Heisenberg is in a thoughts. He is tone, and it is difficult to take it, decided to get a walk to the Faelled Park, which is not far from the Boho Institute. There is no one in the park in the middle of the night, and the evening wind is blowing on the face or is cold, but it is awake. Heisenberg is full of large and small matrices. He also remembers the strange multiplication rules of the matrix: P × q ≠ Q × P Theory determines what we observed? Theory said p × ≠ Q × P, it determines what we observed? What does i × II mean? Take the II line first by first. So what does p × q mean? P is moving, Q is the location, this is not said ... It seems that a lightning is over the night sky, Heisenberg's sense suddenly clear. P × Q ≠ Q × P, this is not to say, first observe the momentum P, then observe the position Q, this is the first observed Q to observe P, the result is different? Wait, what did this explain? Suppose we have a small ball forward, then at every moment, is its momentum and location not all determined variables? Why is it only the order of observation, and the result will be different? Heisenberg's hand pinched a sweat, he knew an extremely very significant secret. How can this? If we want to measure a rectangular length and wide, then first measurement or first measure the wide, is this not a matter? Unless ... unless the measurement moment P this action itself, the value of Q is affected. In turn, the action of measuring Q also affects the value of P. However, jokes, if I measure P and Q at the same time? Hesenburg suddenly saw the gods, he suddenly turned over.

P × q ≠ Q × P, do you say that our equation wants to tell us, is it impossible to observe P and Q? Theory not only decides what we can observe, but it also decides what we can't observe! However, I am confused, I can't observe what P and Q mean? Observing P affects Q? Observation Q affects P? What are we saying? If I said, a small ball is at time t, its position coordinate is 10 meters, the speed is 5 meters / sec, is this problem? "There is a problem, there is a problem." Heisenberg clamped. "How can you know that at time t, a small ball location is 10 meters, the speed is 5 meters / second? What do you know?" "What? Do you still use it? Observe, measure. "Key is here! Measure!" Heisenberg knocked on his own brain said, "I now understand now, the problem is above the measurement behavior. The length of a rectangle is dead, you measure it At the same time, it will never change, vice versa. Let's talk about the classic small ball, how do you measure its location? You must see it, or use some kind of instrument to detect it, no matter How can you use some way to touch it, or how do you know its location? Take 'see', how can you see the location of 'a small ball? Total a photon From the light source, hit this ball, then rebound into your eyes? The key is that a classic ball is a big thing, the photon hits it like an ants hit the elephant, and the impact on it can be ignored. It will never affect its speed. Because of this, we can measure its location after it, then measure its speed, it is too much. "But we are talking about electronics now! It is so small, so that the photons must never be ignored. Measure the location of an electronic? Ok, we sent a photon to execute this task, how did it report it back? Yes, I came into contact with this electron, but after I hit it, I flew there, and I went to it, and I couldn't say anything now. Look, in order to measure its location, we have changed its speed, which is moving. We can't accurately know the location of an electronics, while it is accurately understood. "Heisenberg flying also ran back to the research institute, burying a bitter, and finally he got a formula: ΔP × △ Q> H / 2π ΔP and ΔQ were measured by measuring P and measure Q. Error, H is a Planck constant. Hesenburg discovery, measurement of P and measurement errors, their product must be greater than a constant. If we put the p measurement very accurate, that is, △ p is very small, then correspondingly △ q will become very large, that is to say that our knowledge about Q is very vague and uncertain. In turn, if we measure the position Q very accurate, P will become swayed, the error is sharp Increased. If we accurately put the P measurement, it is to say △ p = 0, then △ q will become infinite. This is to say, if we understand all the information of electronic moment, then we will At the same time, I lost all the information on the position Q. We don't know where it is, what is it?

Fish and bear's palms can't have it, or we have precisely know that P and let us let me know Q and give up all the knowledge of P, or we have complain, and get a relatively fuzzy P and relatively vague Q . P and q are like a pair of former herbs, their life does not meet each other, such as participant, in a state in which you have no. No matter which one we are close, it will be sharply alienated. This strange amount is called "conjugate", we will see later, there are many of this amount. The principle of Hesenburg was published on March 23, 1927, which is called Uncertainty PrinciPle. When it was originally translated into Chinese, it was very cute to translate into "Improving principle", but most of them changed to more universally significant "uncertain principle".

Second uncertain principle ... uncertain? We have encountered this annoying word again. Or is there, this word is unpopular in physics. If physics can't be sure, then what do we want to do? The probability interpretation of Bonn is already annoying - even if all given all conditions, the results cannot be predicted. Now Hesenburg is more, given all the conditions? This premise itself is impossible, given some of the conditions, another part of the conditions becomes blurred, and cannot be determined. Given P, then we have to worship Q. This is not very wonderful, there must be anything wrong. We measure P to measure Q? I am not dead, I don't want to see it. Ok, Heisenberg picks up, remember the Wilson Cloud Room? Are you not worried about this problem? Through the cloud room, we can see the trajectory of electronic movement, then we can certainly calculate its instantaneous speed by continuous measurement of its instantaneous speed, do you know its momentum? "This problem," Heisenberg laughed, "I finally wanted to pass. The electronic in the cloud room is not the fine 'track' in our understanding. In fact, it is just a series of condensed water. You It enlarges, it is not continuous, a group's 'dashed line', it is impossible to accurately draw the concept of the location, but also can't talk about violation of uncertain principle. "" Oh? This is this. So we Just a little, don't you find the fine trajectory of the electronic? We can use a big microscope to do this, theory is not impossible? "" Right, microscope! "Heisenberg is happy Said, "I want to say the microscope. Let's do a thinking experiment (Gedanken-Experiment), imagine that we have an incomparable microscope. However, a good microscope also has the basic principle, I know, no matter what, if we use a wave to observe what is much smaller than its wavelength, then it is not accurate, just like using a thick pen. If we want to observe the electronic This tiny thing, we must use a short wavelength of light. Ordinary light is not good, it is necessary to use ultraviolet, X-rays, even γ rays. "" Well, anyway, thinking experiments without spending money, we assume I made a huge amount to break the sky, which made us a state-of-the-art gamma ray microscope. So, don't you see the location of the electronics now? "" But, "Heisenberg pointed out," Have you forgotten? Any wave of electrons 必 必 will cause disturbances to the electronic itself. The shorter wavelength, the higher it, is it? Everyone should still remember the formula E = hν, frequency A high energy is also enhanced, so that the disturbance of electron is more powerful, and we can't understand its momentum. You see, this is perfect to meet the principles of uncertainty. "" You are a sophistry. Ok we Accepting reality, whenever we use a photon to detect electronics, it will cause strong disturbance to change the direction of the direction, flew in the other direction. However, we can still use some smart, roundabout methods. To achieve our goal. For example, we can measure the direction of the photons rebounded back, thereby derive it from what effect it produces electrons, and exports the direction of the electronic itself. How, this will not crack your trick "" "" Still not. "Heisen Fort shook his head," In order to achieve the high sensitivity, our microscope must have a large diameter lens.

You know, the lens gathers the light from all directions to a focus so that we simply can't tell where the light comes back. If we narrow the diameter of the lens to ensure that the photons are not focused, the sensitivity of the microscope must be varied and unable to compete for this job. So your little smart is still not working. "It's a evil door. So, what is the rebound of the microscope itself? "The same truth, to observe such a fine effect, it is necessary to use the wavelength short light, so its energy is big, just cause all the disturbances of the microscope itself ..." Wait, we don't die. Ok. We acknowledge that our observation equipment is very rough, our ten refers to the clumsy, our civilization has only a thousand years of history, modern science is only 300 years old. We admit that our current science and technology level For it, we can't observe the location and momentum of a fine electronics, because our instrument is stupid. However, this does not show that the electronics have location and moment, maybe in the future, even the future future We will develop a cutting-edge technology. We will invent extreme fine instruments to accurately measure the location and moment of electronics? You can't deny this possibility. "The words are not said. "If Hesenberg is thinking," the problem here is the theory to limit what we can obey, not the error caused by experiments. At the same time, it is impossible to measure the accurate momentum and position in principle, regardless of the more developed technology. Just like you can never make a permanent motion, you will always make a microscope that can be detected at the same time. No matter what theory we have found later, they must obey the principles of uncertainty. This is a basic principle. All follow-up theories must obtain legitimacy under its supervision. "Is this an argument in Hesenburg? It's too overbearing? And so that the body of the physicist is not lost? Imagine the public's performance: What, are you a physicist? Oh I really regret, you don't even know the momentum and position of electronic! Our family Tommy also knows how to play with his skin. However, we still have to put the truth, reason, and morality. One is another one The ideological experiment is proposed, but we can't accurately measure the momentum of electronics, and it is precise to get its position. The product must be greater than that constant, that is, H divided 2π. Lucky It is, we all remember that H is very small, only 6.626 × 10 ^ -34 jersen, then if △ p and △ q are magnitude, they are all at 10 ^ -17. We can comfort now. The masses of unknown truth: things are not so bad, this effect is only obvious in the scale of electrons and photons. For Tommy playing, 10 ^ -17 is simply negligible to the extreme, it is impossible to feel Come out. Tommy can take his skin with peace of mind, don't worry, it is lost because it is not allowed to lose it. However, it will be greatly different for the electronic scale world. In the last chapter of the last chapter We used to smudge the mystery of the electronic size to explore the original, then our height is only 10 ^ -23 meters. Now, my mother is worried about our naughty behavior. If we want to measure where we have, but they are destined To be disappointed: The measurement error reaches 10 ^ -17 meters, which is 1 million times of our own height! What is 1 million times mean, if we usually be 1 meter 75, this error reaches 1.75 million meters, that is At 1750 kilometers, the mothers have to find us everywhere in the entire Beijing-Shanghai railway. "Insurance" becomes the name.

At any time, nature stubbornly sticks to this bottom line, never let us have any opportunity to get the precise value of position and momentum simultaneously. Ren, our agency, the tricks, it is always better than us, and every time we defeat our little smart. Cannot measure the location and momentum of electrons? Let's design a very small container, which can only accommodate an electronics, do not leave any extra space, what? Can electronic can't move? However, first, this container is definitely could not be made, because it itself must be composed of electronics, so it itself must have a position of the position, so that the internal space has increased. Take another step, even if it can be, in this case, electrons will mysteriously penetrate the container wall, appear outside the container, like the legendary Wall Taoist Taoist. The principle of uncertainty gives it a magical ability, breaking through all binding. There is also a way to cool down. We all know that atoms are constantly vibrating, the temperature is the macro performance of this vibration, when the temperature falls to absolute zero, theoretical atom is completely stationary. At that time, momentum was determined to be zero, as long as the measurement position is it? Unfortunately, absolute zero is unable to reach, no matter how hard work, the atom still hysually owns the last point to make us measure it. No matter who is, you can't let the atom are completely stationary. The legendary Saint Seiya is not working - they can't overcome the principles of uncertainty. Motivities P and position Q, they are truly "do not wear the sky". As long as one is in the universe, the other is mysterious. Either, both are in a fuzzy face. Heisenberg quickly found another pair of similar enemies, they are energy E and time t. As long as the energy e measures the more accurate, the time t is more embarrassing; in turn, the time T measurement is more accurate, and the energy e begins to rise in large-scale. Moreover, the relationship between them complies with the same uncertainty rules: △ E × △ T> h / 2π, our universe has become very wonderful. Various physical quantities followed this uncertain principle of Hesenburg, which is rising, and the foam is constantly rising and squeezing like a mysterious sea. In the ancient people, "empty" is empty. But later people know that there are countless molecules in the air invisible, "empty" should finger the vacuum of the air. Later, people feel that various fields, from the gravitational field to the electromagnetic field, should also exclude the concept of "empty", it should only refer to the space itself. But now, this concept begins to be chaotic. First of all, Einstein's relativity tells us that the space itself can distort the deformed, and the importance is just its bending. The principle of the Uncertainty of Hesenburg showed a large scene: We know that T measure the more accurate, the more u. So at a very very short moment, that is, T is very determined, even if the vacuum will also appear huge energy. This energy is completely revealed by uncertainty, it does violate energy conservation law! But this moment is extremely short, and it has not yet come yet, it has disappeared, which makes energy conservation law to be maintained. The shorter the interval, the more determine it, the more ug, the more you can, the greater the energy that appears in the air. So, our vacuum is in just all the time, there is a mysterious energy to produce and disappear everywhere. Einstein told us that energy and substances can be converted to each other, so in vacuum, there is actually some "ghost" substances in the event, but they have disappeared in another world before we didn't grab them. . The vacuum itself is the best medium for this fluctuation.

Now if we talk about "empty", it should be clearly said: no substance, no energy, no time, no space. This is nothing, it can't be imagined at all (what can you imagine if there is no space?). However, some people say that this is not "empty", because the space and time itself seems to be created from one without anything through a certain mechanism, I really want to go crazy, how do you count "empty"? ******** After the meal, gossip: None of the born has a case, all scientists believe that there is absolutely impossible. Materials cannot be manufactured in vacant, and energy cannot be manufactured in air, and the time and space itself. However, the emergence of uncertain principles, all the old concepts are gently pulverized. Heisenberg tells us that in a very small space and a very short time, what we have happen because we are very determined to time, so it is very uncertain to energy. The energy substance can escape the restraint of physical law, freely appear and disappear. However, this freedom price is that it can only be limited to the very short time. When it is time to come, the Cinderella is now original, these mysterious material energy will disappear, maintain quality conservation. It is not destroyed in large scale. However, in the late 1960s, some people thought of a possibility: the energy of gravitational is negative (because the gravitation is suction, assuming that the infinite potential energy is 0, then when the object is approaching, due to the gravitational work, it is negative because the force is negative), Therefore, in a short period of time, the substance energy, which can also form an gravitational field, and the negative energy generated is just offset, so that the total energy remains 0, and does not destroy the conservation law. In this way, the substance is really produced from one place. Many people believe that our universe is produced by this mechanism. Quantum effects make a small time and space suddenly produced in a time and space, and then expanded to the scale of the entire universe because of the effects of various power. MIT 's scientist Alan Guth Alan Guth, started this idea, founded the "inflation" of the universe. Earlier in the universe, each piece of space has increased in an unimaginable amazing speed, which makes the total volume of the universe increases many times. This can explain why today's structure seems to be even in various directions. Multiple versions have also occurred since the establishment of the theory of the skyrocket, but it is difficult to determine if this theory is correct, because the universe is not like our laboratory to be observed. But most physicists are still preferred, think this is a promising theory. In 1998, Guus also published a book of popular introduction, his favorite sentence is: "The universe itself is a free lunch." It means that the universe is from one without anything. However, if it is strict, this is not a strict "no middle". Because even if there is no substance, there is no time space, we still have a premise: there is physical law! Various rules of relativity and quantum theory, such as how uncertain principle itself is born from there? Or do they exist in pairs? The more you say that you will be, let's stop.

San when Hesenbur has completed his uncertain principle, he quickly wrote to Bubil and far in the Norway, telling them his thoughts. After receiving the letter from Heisenberg, Boir immediately returned to Copenhagen from Norway, preparing to discuss in-depth discussion on this issue and Heisenberg. Heisenberg may think that such a great one will definitely kill the heart of Boir, let him agree with the consistent idea of ​​quantum mechanics. However, he is greatly wrong. In Norway, Bohoo thinks about the wave problem in the skiing, and the new idea is gradually constitutive in his brain. When he saw Hesenburg's papers, he naturally used this idea to confirm the entire conclusion. He asked Hesenburg, this uncertainty is from the nature of the particles or is it from the nature of the wave? Hesenburg, he didn't think about any wave of embarrassment. Of course, it is a particle. Since the photon hits the electron with an uncertainty, is this not a clear? Boir shook his head very seriously, and he took the giant microscope of Hehesen, proved to a large extent, unreasonable particle nature, is from volatility. We discussed the debrroe wavelength formula λ = h / mv, MV is moving p, so P = h / λ, for each momentum P, there is always a concept of wavelength accompanying it. For E-T relationships, E = hν, still has frequency ν this volatile concept is inside. Hesenburg rejected this, so that he accepts volatility, it is not an easy thing, and it is obviously impatient to Hesenburg, and he explicitly said to Heisenberg: "Your microscope experiment Is not right, "this Hessian is crying. Two people were quarreling, Klein, of course helped Boce, which made the atmosphere inside Copenhagen was very sharp. From the physical problems, it later became private misunderstandings, with Haisenberg had to return to the bubble to make a clarification. Finally, the Bubble I personally ran to Denmark, which finally sailed the remaining wave of the event. Unfortunately, Heisenberg is unfortunately, it is indeed wrong with the microscope. Heisenberg is about to live with some "microscope phobia", and it is dizzy when a microscope is touched. At that year, he couldn't get the most basic microscope resolution problem in his own reply, almost did not get the degree. This time Boir has finally let him realize that uncertainty is based on the double basis of wave and particles. It is actually a swing between the electronics between the waves and particles: the more people 's attributes, the more The less the properties of the particles are less. Heisenberg finally finally accepted the criticism of Boir, giving him the paper added a note, and the uncertainty is actually above the construction of continuity and discontinuity, and thanks to Bohore pointed out this. Boir also gathered in this debate, he found that uncertain principle is the biggest meaning of the principle. He thought that this is just a local principle, but now he realizes this principle is one of the most core cornerstones in quantum. In the letter giving Einstein, Boce praised Heisenberg's theory, saying that he "using an extremely beautiful manner" shows uncertain in the quantum theory. After the Easter holiday, the two sides finally retired, and the situation finally got up in the sky. Heisenberg wrote a good mood in the letter written to the bubble, saying "It can also simply discuss physical problems, forget everything". Indeed, the brothers are in the wall, but also outside, the Copenhagen is now united like a stone, they will soon face greater challenges, and put the name of Copenhagen deeply engraved in physics The glorious history. However, the words are coming back. Volatility, fine particles, from the beginning of our history, these two words have been deeply plagued us, until now.

Ok, uncertainty is built in volatility and particulate ... But don't this? Our patience is limited, it is better to spread the window to say bright words, this dead electron is a particle or wave that? The particles are still wave, it is really a very sense of topics. This is a legendary story for 300 years, of which the sorrow and joys, the greatest names in the history of physical history: Newton, Hu Ke, Hu Jimei, Yang, Facney, Fu Kok, Maxwell, Hertz, Tomson, Einstein, Compton, Debroyi ... En-grievances, who can understand? In a place where we are in the country, on the one hand, the double seamed experiment and Mai's theory are unfamiliar with the volatility of the light. On the other hand, the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect is also clearly indicated that it is a particle. In terms of electronics, Boore's transition, the spectra in the atom, the matrix of Hesenburg stressed that it is not continuous, it seems that the particle is in the wind, but the Schrödinger's equation has rendered its continuity, even Put the fluctuated label to its face. How to see, indirect is not a particle; how to see, indoor can't be a wave. How is this good? When encountering a tricky problem, the best way is to ask our idols, and Mr. Holmes, who is omnipotent. He said this: "My method, it is buffed in such a hypothesis: When you exclude everything impossible, the rest, no matter how bizarre, it is inevitable." ("New Skinny! ") Is really a famous saying. Then, the electronics cannot be a particle, it is impossible to not wave. The rest, the only possibility is ... It is both a particle, and it is a wave! However, wait, this is too much? It's not to accept people. What is "not only a particle, but also wave"? These two images are clearly exclusive. A person may be both a man, is it a woman (the eunuch is not required)? Do you not contradict this? However, I have to believe in Holmes, but also believe in Boce, because Bohl is thinking. There is no doubt that an electronic must be interpreted by two angles of particles and wave, and any unilateral description is incomplete. Only both particles and wave two concepts are organically combined, electrons become a blood-free electronic electron, which is really a complete image. No particle electrons are blind, and there is no volatility electron is lame. This is still not convinced, it is both a particle? I am unimaginable, is it like a ghost, a strange wave is distributed around the particles, making it a superposition of these two states? Who has witnessed this kind of nightmare scene? Come out for a certificate? "No, you understand it wrong." Bauho shakes his head, "We observe the electron at any time, it can only show a property, or the particles are either wave. Claiming to see the particles - wave mixing superimposed people either Old spectacles, either purely in his nuts. However, as an overall concept of electronics, it exhibits a wave-particle bimetry, it can show the side of the particles, or show the wave of the wave, This depends on how we will observe it. We want to see a particle? Well, let it turn it into a small point on the screen. Look, the particles! We want to see a wave? OK, let it pass Sewing composition interference pattern.

Look, wave! "Strange, it seems that there is no right, but I can't say it ... well, the electronic seems to be electronically appearance, sometimes it is like a wave of appearance, um, nice change, it is, torn off its mask, it originally What is the real body? "This is the key! This is your difference. "Bluo means deeply said," Electronics 'true body'? Or exchange a few words, the prototype of electronics? The original face of electrons? The ultimate concept of electronics? These are all meaningless words, for us, the only known thing is what we see every time we see. We see that electrons present particle nature, but also seeing electronics exhibits volatility, then, of course, we assume that it is a mixture of particles and waves. I don't care about the electronic 'what is ", I think it is meaningless. In fact, I don't care about the nature 'what is ", I only care about what we can" observe "to nature. Electronics is a particle and a wave, but every time we observe it, it only shows one of them. The key is what we 'how to observe it, not it' is what is. "Bol's words may be too mysterious. Let's understand it. Nowadays, the mobile phone is changing the shell. I have a good mood yesterday. I have a shining bright silver. Today is not good, change a relatively melancholy blue咦咦 奇 了, why my mobile phone is silver yesterday, is it blue today? Is the two colors not excluded? How can my mobile phone can be silver, is it blue? Obviously, This is not to say that my mobile phone shows silver and blue, turns a generous "silver" color, it is silver or blue, it depends on how I have its housing. I decided to assemble it like this yesterday. It presents silver, and today it is changed, it turns blue. It is color, depending on how I assemble it! But if you must break the casserole: My mobile phone "original" What color? That can be confused. If you refer to it, what the shell is equipped with it, I can tell you. However, if you emphasize the "original", or "concept in the philosophical sense, or" concept in the color of the phone "What is it, I will feel that you can't make it a matter. I really want me to say, I think it" original "has no color, only we put it on a case and observe it, it exhibits some color. It is What color, depending on how we observe it, not depends on what color it "original". I think it is discussing it "The color" is an idiotic dream. Another example, everyone knows "White Malaysia" But we don't discuss this. We ask: What color is this horse? Of course, you will say: White. However, maybe you have a color blind, he will argue: No, it is red! Everyone refers to it is With the same horses, how can it be white and red? Of course, that person has a defect in the feel, he is not the color of the horse, but who knows that you must see it. What about the correct color? If there is a half color blind, who will tell? Truth "? Do not say color blindness, we wear a red glasses, this is the horse to see it into red? How is it just white? Is it red now? Oh, because you changed the observation, wear glasses.

So, which way is it true? God knows, Zhuang Zhou dreams into a butterfly or butterfly dreams become Zhuang Zhou? What do you wear is true or take off the glasses? Our conclusion is that it is meaningless to discuss which one is "true". The only thing we can say is what it looks like under certain observation methods. We can say that in the way we use the naked eye, the horse is present on white. Similarly, we can also say that in the observation mode of glasses, the horse is present in red. Color blindness can also be claimed that the horse is red under the photosensitive manner of his special constructor. As for the horse "Original", it doesn't make sense. Even we can say that the horse "The color" is the Ziwu. Most people say that Ma is white, but most of us use a similar way of observation, this does not point to an ultimate truth. Electronics is also the same. Is electronic or wave? It depends on how you observe it. If the observation of the photoelectric effect is used, it is undoubtedly a particle; if it is observed with a double seam, then it is undoubtedly a wave. It is a particle or wave? Also, there is no "original", all attributes are associated with observations, let "I originally" see the ghost. However, once the observation method is determined, the electronic should choose a form of expression, it has to be a wave or particle, and it cannot be mixed again. This is like our poor horse, no matter what way to observe, it can only show a color at some moment. I have never had such a wonderful experience: this horse is also white, and it is red. Waves and particles are mutually exclusive at the same time, but they are uniform together at a higher level, which is included in both sides of the electronic. This is the "Complementary Principle" of Boore, which interprets the probability of Bonn, the uncertainty of Heisenberg, together with the core of the quantum "Copenhagen Interpretation", still profoundly affecting us The ultimate understanding of the entire universe. "The Third War of War" was taken in such a dramatic way. This wonderful combination of the quantum world is the famous "wave bilayer". __________________

Four-three hundred years of smoke is exhausted, wave and particles reach a compromise in such a strange way: the two are indisparable. Just like the two sides of the Pope and evil, although in each certain moment, only one side can reflect, but they are indeed concentrated on a person. Waves and particles are a pair of twin brothers, they are so hard, but they have been a single proud story in physics. This taught the people. Now let's go back to the last chapter, revisit the dilemma encountered before the waves and particles: Electronics choose the slit on the left, or the slit on the right? Now we know, if we use any natural observation method, it fluctuates the wind. This electron then passes through two slits at the same time, it is interference with itself, and its wave function is developed in accordance with strict interference graphics. However, when it hits the immersive screen, the observation method has changed! We are now trying to detect the actual position of electrons, so suddenly, particle sex is taken over, this electron is condensed into a point, randomly appear in a place in the screen according to the probability of ψ. Make us install the instrument on a slit, trying to measure which side of electron passes, pay attention, this is another completely different observation method! ! ! We tried to detect the actual position of the electron with the slit, but only particles have a practical position. This is actually a suggestion that we applied, allowing electronics to show particle. In fact, only one side of the instrument will record its trace, but at the same time, the interference stripes are also eliminated because the volatility disappears with particle sex. We finally understand how electronics performance depends entirely on how we observe it. Grow melons, type beans, want to record its location? Ok, that is the properties of the particles, the electronic understanding, the particle is expressed, and there is no interference. Do not make such an attempt, the electron shows volatility, passing through two slits and forms familiar interference stripes. Quantum physicists have finally gradually realized the truth of things: our conclusions and our observed behavior itself. This is like the horse is white or red, this conclusion and what kind of way we use it to observe it. Some people may not cost the official: the conclusion is only one, and it is the only true true. Color blind is vision defects, glasses are external equipment, how can these be said to see "true"? In fact, there is nothing, they are nothing more than two different observations, our argument is that there is no so-called "real" at all. Ok, now I have a good vision, nor do you wear any device, see the horse is white. So, is it true? In fact, I have said this, I have implicit a premise: "Use the normal naked eye, in the ordinary light, the horse is now white." Re-technical, the human eye can only feel the light, the wavelength is 400- Where about 760 nm, the light of these bands is mixed to form white in our impression. So the premise of our argument is that in the spectral area of ​​400-760 nanometers, it is white. Many insects, such as bees, the spectra that has a herd eye feels is great. Bees can not see the wavelength than yellow light, but it is very sensitive to ultraviolet rays. In its view, this horse is probably a blue purple, even it may paint to you to describe an unimaginable "UV". Now you have noisy with the bees, you insist on this horse is white, and the bees are biting is blue purple. Who is you and the bees wrong? In fact, all right.

So, how can Ma may be white and purple? In fact, your observation means is different. For the bee, it is also "friends" see it, people are not more correct than the bees, and is more close to the "truth". Say, color blind is just a blind spot for some of the lights, and the glasses only add a filter, it is also the same, and there is no reason to say that they see is "false". In fact, there is no "objective truth". The discussion of the horse is in the "what color", just as we have pointed out, it is very boring behavior. There is no absolute so-called "original" at all, unless you define the way observed. Boir is good, Heisenberg is also good, and now I finally understand: talking about any physical quantity is meaningless, unless you first describe the way you measure this physical quantity. What is the momentum of an electronic? I don't know, an electron has no absolute momentum, but if you tell me how you plan to measure, I can tell you what is measured. According to the different measurement, this momentum can be very accurate until ambiguous blur, these results are possible, and it is correct. The momentum of an electronic, only when you measure it, it makes sense. If this is not understood, I imagine someone draws two horizontal clamps on the paper. Ask you what is the word. Well, this is a "work" word, but it may be "H" in the horizontal, and this problem is not controverting before he didn't tell you. Now, you are told: "The view of this pattern should be horizontal." This is clear: This is a capital letter H. Only after the observation means is clear, the answer is meaningful. measuring! In the classic theory, this is not a considered problem. Measure the weight of a stone, I use the balance, use the spring scales, use the scales, or use the electronic scale, theoretically, there is no difference. In the classic theory, the stone is in an absolute, objective external world, and I - observer - There is no effect on this world, at least, this effect is slightly negligible. How much is your data you measure, how much is the "objective weight" of the stone. However, the quantum world is different, we have seen that the object we measure is so small, so that our intervention has created a fatal intervention. Our disturbance makes our measurements full of uncertainty and cannot be overcome in principle. Take different means, often get different answers, as the uncertainty principle swing, you can't say there is an objective and determined answer there. There is no external world and my division in the quantum, we and objective world is one, integrated, we have influenced with the observations, making measurement behavior into a means of difficult to grasp. In the quantum world, an electronic does not "objective momentum", we can talk about, only its "measurement momentum", and this is closely related to our measurement. Dear, we have already paved the quantum theory of the strange swamp, I only hope that everyone will not be too dusk, because there are countless wonderful things, missed unfortunately. I am sorry, in these sections, we seem to be immersed in a kind of mysterious philosophical discussion, and it seems to continue to discuss. This is because the quantum revolution involves the fundamental change of our worldview, and our understanding of the universe. Behind the quantum theory has some very shapes, it makes our rational war, sweat. However, in order to understand the great power of quantity, we can't circumvent these and self-deceived blindness.

If you have followed me from the history of the history, I am at least appreciated by your courage and perseverance, but I can't help you. If you feel confused, then Bohr's famous saying "If you don't feel confused for the quantum, then he is not understanding the quantity" may give you some comfort. Moreover, as we will be described soon, you may be very proud, because Einstein and you are a situation. But now, we have to go further. The above paragraph is just a small asthorn, we will continue to start. If you do not define a measure of the measurement, then we are talking about electronic momentous? This seems to be a kind of idealism. Don't we measure electronics, is it not moving? We are very surprised and embarrassing that Bohr and Hesenburg two people. Little is also good, if a physics concept is unable to measure, it is meaningless. We must always pay attention to the observer in the quantum is combined with the outside universe, and there is no clear division line between them, it is a whole. In the classic theory, we have existed from an absolute objective external world, we may not understand certain factors in this world, but this does not affect its objectivity. Now we have also integrated into this world. For this world, anything should be measured and perceived. Only observable amount is existing! Karl Sagan has raised a very interesting example, although not directly about quantum theory, but it will explain the problem. "There is a fire in my garage!" He claims. "It's too hanily!" His friend came to the garage, but did not see the dragon. "Where is the dragon?" "Oh," Sad said, "I forgot to explain, this is a stealth dragon." Friends have some slings, but he suggests that some powder is on the ground, see the dragon's claw print is No will appear. But Sadgan claims that this dragon is floating in the air. "Since this dragon is in the fire, we use the infrared detector to do a thermal scan?" "You can't." Savan said, "There is no temperature in the invisible fire." "Eth or the dragon spray paint makes it? "-" This dragon is non-substance, slipping without slipping, paint is nowhere to stick. "No, there is no physical method to detect the existence of this dragon. Sagen finally asked: "Such can't see it, no entity, floating in the air, the dragon who has no heat, a dragon that is not able to detect any instrument, and there is no difference between the 'there is no dragon' What about it? "Now, Bohr and Heisenburg also treat the physical quantity with this harsh denomination. The principle of uncertainty said that it is impossible to measure the momentum P and position Q of the electronic simultaneously, any precision instrument is not. Many people may think, well, even if this is theoretical limit, and the clumsy of our experiment, we can still comfort yourself, saying that electronic is actually the accurate position and momentum, only we are Some restrictions cannot be known. However, Copenhagen began to strike this point of view: a classic electron with accurate P and Q? This is probably a self-deception. Can any instrument detect such an electronic? - No, it is impossible in theory. Then, the same truth, an electronic survival, completely detecting the electronics, and there is no difference between this electronic? In fact, the electron with P and Q does not exist! P and q are also like a wave and particles, which are survived in such a way of uncertain principle and complementary principle.

For some measurement means, electrons present a accurate P, for other measurement methods, electrons exhibit accurate Q. The electronic we can measure is the only real, there is no "objective", or "actually", it does not exist. In other words, there is no objective, absolute world. The only thing that exists is what we can observe. The whole meaning of physics is not that it can reveal the natural "what", but it can be clear, what we can "say" about the naturalness. There is no definite nature that is out of observation, only our complicated measurement relationship, bustling and horizontal, constitutes all of this isturred universe. The measurement is the core of new physics, and the measurement behavior creates the whole world. ******** After the meal, gossip: The Okam razor has the electronics of P and Q, which does not exist. Some people may feel not understanding, isn't it really probably? Let's ask yourself, "What is this world" and "What is we can detect this world" two propositions, how much is it different? What is the world that we probes the ability, is it all the real world? For example, we can only detect electrons, it can only detect electronics is a particle or a wave, then there is a "real" world, where electronically coexists, we can spend each time, we detect, only However, this is the ultimate part of the projection in our body. Similarly, in this "real world", there is also an electronics with P and Q, but we have the same side with it, and only half of the measurements, can't spy its true face? Assuming that the universe expands enough to expand enough in the early days, it is so distant, even from the moment of innovation, it is not possible to establish any communication with it. The age of the universe is about 15 billion, and the farthest distance of any signal spread is not 15 billion light years. So, there is no other "real" universe outside of our 15 billion light years, although they can't and us Any causal connection between the universe? In that world, is there a unfire of the fire in the world, is there a horse with "real" color, and we only observe is just this "real color" skin. I am arguing with you that the earth "actually" is the party, but it is only rounded when we observe it. But in that "real" world, it is, and this world we are not observed, but do not show it does not exist. If we use the "Occam's Razor", these observations are not "the world" all are son, at least meaningless. This principle is created by a monk William, 14th century, Okham is where he is born. The Okam's William has a famous saying that he said to the Louis Ice in Bavaria: "You use the sword to defend me, I use the pen to defend you." The principle of razor is said that when two statements When you can explain the same fact, you should believe that the assumption is less. For example, the earth "original" is, but the circle is displayed during observation. This is the same thing as the earth "originally circle". But the former introduced an inexplicable unnecessary assumption, so the former said. Similarly, "Electronic has accurate P and Q, but only 1 can be displayed when observed", this and "electronic" with p or Q is the same, but the former has a hypothesis, we It should be believed. "The existence but observation is not observed", this and "there is no existence" is a matter of matter.

Similarly, there is no particle-wave mixed electronic, there is no dissevisible fireless dragon, there is no "absolute color" horse, there is no universe outside the 15 billion light years (15 billion light years this distance is called "Vision"), No four-dimensional person is observed in a 4D scale scale, there is no absolute external world. Steven Hawko said in "Time Simply": "We can still imagine that there is a set of the laws that fully determine the events, and they can observe the state of the universe without having to interfere. However, our human beings There is not much interest in such a cosmic model. It seems that it is best to cut all the characteristics that the theory cannot be observed in the theory. "You may feel the feeling of this empirism. Refutation: "Is there an unmanned desert, do you not exist?" In the future, we will discuss this unmanned desert from another angle. Here is to point out that "unmanned desert" is not principled. It is not observed.

Wu Ji, as our historical call repeatedly reminded everyone, the destructive power of the quantum the revolution is quite amazing. In the three core principles of probability, uncertainty principles, and complementary principles, the first two destroyed the causality, complementary principles, and uncertain principles of the classic world and smashed the objectivity and realities of the world. The new quantum picture shows an unprecedented world, it is so strange, unimaginable, and people's daily life, even violates our rationality itself. However, it can explain all incredible phenomena in quantum world. This mainstream interpretation is called the "Copenhagen" explanation of quantum theory, which is made by Boir-headed scientists. Most of them have worked in Copenhagen, many are the founders of quantum theory itself. In addition to Boce, Nature and Heisenberg, Bon, Bubble, Dirac, Clame, Jors, also included later Wenceu and Gayov, etc., this explanation has been It is the orthodoxism of quantum, which is written into a variety of textbooks. Of course, because it is too strange, Taishi ordinary people are confused, there is no day in recent 80 years without being quoted, accusing, attacking from all sides. There are also some other explanations that have been put forward, including Debroyi-Glum hidden function theory, Effrete's multi-universe explanation, John Taylor's comprehensive explanation, "spontaneous domain" of GHirardi-Rimini-Weber "Decoherent Histories, or consistent histies), etc., and so on. After our history, we will look at these theories one by one, but it is fairly that there is no theory that can replace Copenhagen's interpretation, and no one can prove that Copenhagen interpretation is actually "wrong" (of course, some people may argue. "Incomplete"). The theory of hidden functions was considered quite hope, but unfortunately it was still in the oral, but still stayed in verbal today. Therefore, our historical call will still narrate as the main line in Copenhagen. For the reader, he can certainly judge itself and draw his own unique view. The basic content of Copenhagen explained, all around the three core principles. We have already said in the previous, first, the principle of uncertainty limits our understanding of microscopic things, and this limit is everything with physical meaning. Second, because there is an observer to disturbance of the observed object, the main body and the object world must be understood as an integral of an indiscrunable. There is no "thing" (Being) that exists in the objective world, in fact, there is nothing in a purely objective world, and anything only combines a specific observation means to talk about specific significance. The forms of objects exhibited to a large extent on our observation method. For the same object, these expressions may be mutually exclusive, but must be used in the description of this object, that is, the principle of complementation. Finally, because our observation brings a variety of principled disturbances, the essence of the quantum world is "random". The strict causal relationship in the traditional concept is not existed in the quantum world. It must be replaced by a statistical explanation. The wave function ψ is a statistically, its square represents the probability of the particle appears somewhere. When we say "Electronics appear in X", we don't know what this event is "reason, it is a completely random process, no causal relationship.

Some people may feel very bad: it is uncertain, there is no causality, is this world not a mess? Since physicists don't know everything, then they still think that in the university collar, or bully in the TV show? However, things have not imagined so bad, although we can only predict their probability, but we all know that the probability theory is very useful when the sample is very large. We can't know where an electronic appears on the screen, but we are very sure that when tens of thousands of electrons pass through the double seam, they will form an interference pattern. This is like the insurance company can't predict when a customer will die, but it is clear about the overall mortality rate of a city, so the insurance company must make money! Traditional TV or computer screen, there is an electron gun behind, and constantly play the electronic to form a picture on the screen. For single electronics, I don't know which point it will appear on the screen, only probability. However, a large number of electrons are stacked together, and the composition of a stable picture is undoubtedly determined. Look, even if the essence is random, scientists can still make some useful things. If your TV picture is old, there is snow, don't doubt it to the quantum, first check the antenna. Of course, the times are progressing, and the computer screen now has become a thin liquid crystal shape, that is another matter. As for the confused wave binna, it is just the quantum micro-world strange nature. We have already talked about Debroyi equation λ = h / p, and it is the product of λP = H, the wavelength and momentum is equal to the Planck constant h. For microscopic particles, its momentum is very small, so the corresponding wavelength cannot be ignored. But for daily things, their quality is compared to H. It's a merit to a football in life, and the Debrovo, which is accompanied by it, it doesn't feel it. We don't worry, in the World Cup final, see the ball that is going to start, suddenly turns into a wave, disappearing. However, we still feel that they are not very satisfied, because of "observing behavior", we seem to have not made a reasonable explanation. An electron has passed through the double seam with a strange pledge, and its wave function itself has interfered with itself, strictly developed in space. At this stage, because there is no observation, what is the meaning of the electronic, only its probability is expanded in space. Physickings often make a fake and say: "Electron is everywhere, but no in", it means this. However, when we put a photosensitive screen in front of it, things suddenly changed! The electronic suddenly made a selection in accordance with the probability distribution of the wave function, and appears somewhere in the form of a small point. At this time, electronically is determined that the probability of this point becomes 100%, and the probability of other places has become 0. That is, its wave function suddenly contracted from space, gathered to this point, and there is a peak of intensity 1 in this point. And other places have an instant to 0. Oh, God, what happened? Why does the electronic wave function have happened in a moment? The original shape is beautiful, and the wave function that is strictly in line with Schrödinger's equation is crashing in a moment, which has become a pin-like spot. From mathematics, these two states are obviously unable to be derived. Before we observed the electronic, it actually in a superimposed state, all the possibilities of the location were superimposed together, filled into the entire space.

However, when we really go to "see" it, the electronic can not keep it such an elegant and face-free behavior, it is forced to make a choice, select one in countless possibilities, appearing in a certain position In front of us. This miraculous change in the mouth of the wave function, is called "collapse) in the mouth of the Copenhagen, whenever we tried to measure the location of the electronic, which originally followed the wave function evolved in the Schrödinger equation. The probability distribution collapsions (we remember the square of ψ), all possible all in an instant to a certain point. And a real emotion is big, there is a big place, which is available for us to watch. In front of the electrons, if we don't measure its position, then its wave function is exhausted in the equation, while self-interfere with each other by two seams. But if we tried to install an instrument in two stitches to detect which sewing it passed, in which one, the electronic wave function collapsed, and the electron randomly selected a sewing. The collapsed wave function naturally cannot be interference, so, the interference stripes are not returned. Strange, very strange. Why do we observe it, the electronic wave function began to collapse? The fact seems to be like this. When we close your eyes, don't look at this electron, it is not a real electronic. It is like a ghost that is typically emitted from the wave function to the surrounding, virtually no entity, and there is no entity, and floats in the space in the form of a probability wave. As time evolution, this probability wave strictly follows the description of the Schrödinger fluctuation equation, and it is determined to develop according to the classic way. At this time, with it is an electronics, it is better to say that it is a ghost, a chaotic, a watercolor painting, a probability cloud, the smile in the love of the Dream in Alice. No matter how it is good, it is not an entity, it diffuses in a probability, which is very fluctuation, can interfere and superimpose, which is accurately described. But when you open your eyes, the wonderful thing happened! All the phantom, all the ghosts disappeared. The electronic spreading wave function collapsed in an instant, it reforms a real particle, randomly appears somewhere. In addition to this place, all probability waves, all the possibility disappeared. The monster of a breeze refer to a white bone, which is kept in a place. Electronics returned to the real world and became a classic particle that everyone was familiar. You closes your eyes, just change back to the prototype, and spread to the probability wave, spread around. Open your eyes again, it changed back to the particles appeared in some place. You measure it once, and its wave function collapsed once, and randomly determines a new location. Of course, the random here is determined by the probability distribution strictly described in accordance with the wave function. We better describe more lively. Jin Yong describes the twenty-sixth round of "Swordsman" in Wudang and the battle of Wudang, and the long sword is a aperture, so that the fox is dazzling, can't see the sword. In the quantum language, this time the sword is not an entity. It has become a lot of "virtual sword", distributed in the aperture, each "virtual sword" represents a possibility, it May be the "sword pointer". The rushing sword can be described for a wave function, it is very likely to be in the center of the aperture, the strength of this wave function is the greatest, that is, this sword is most likely to appear in the Circle Center. Now let the fox flies straight, pay attention, this is a "measurement behavior"! Ok, in the moment, the wave function of the sword is collapsed, and it turns into a sword.

Let the fox are lucky, it really appears in the middle of the aperture, so I broke this trick. What if I guess? It can't help but break a arm, but the wave function of the rushing sword always collapsed, no matter how it is necessary to appear somewhere, this can hurt the enemy. In the "Three Kingdom Romance" comment, there is a similar plot. Zhao Yun encountered a high list in Changchunpo (some said that it was Zhang embroidery), the latter made a hundred birds, the gun tip fiction is a hundred points, Zhao Yun lucky to break this trick - he casually, forced it The wave function has collapsed, the result is just collapsed into the position of the two guns, and then the highlights are flustered, and they will die under the seven pride of Zhao Yunzhi, this will not say much. We still returned to physical. This kind of Copenhagen explains that it sounds too strange, we observe it, the electronic becomes real, otherwise it is a ghost. Many people must feel incredible: When we are back, or when it is closed, the electronics must be in a place, but we don't know. But as we pointed out, if the electronic is really "in" one place, it can only pass a slit, which is difficult to explain the interference stripes. And we will also see later that the experiment completely excludes this possible. Maybe we say "ghost" is too hit, strictly said that the electron is not observed, talking about it is meaningless, only mathematics can describe the wave function! In accordance with Copenhagen explained, there is no real! Naturally there is no real electronics. In fact, there is no "electronic" thing, there is only "Weight and the observation relationship between our electrons." I can already foresee the quantity of the stinky egg that is about to be thrown - but it is still a wave function, waiting for a while to collapse, haha ​​- how many people in those throwing ox eggs, I feel very honored. In fact, Copenhagen is experiencing the truly troubles, they have to face some powerful skeptics, and these people have just fighting side by side. The most intense in the history of physics in the twentieth century, the most influential impact, and the most profound controversy immediately immediately, which makes we have a more profound understanding of the behavior and spirit of nature. Next chapter we will talk about this great debate - Boir - Einstein dispute.

Chapter VII is a beautiful small town in the northern part of Italy, and the Lake of Shengkoko, the sun is not far from Milan. The famous churches in the city center were filled with gothic style and the breath of the Renaissance to reflect the long history and cultural precipitation of this country. This small town also has a football team - Common team, in the last season (2002-2003), also entered the Grade League, but unfortunately downgrade now. One level report said that it is interested in Chinese players Wu Chengyu, I want to come to the fans unfamiliar. However, the most famous figure in Como, of course, is still a big scientist who was born here in 1745, Alessandro Volta. He is so great in electrical achievements, so that people use his name as a voltage unit: volt. The volt died in September 1827, and he was regarded as a glorious and proud of his hometown. The place he born is named as a voltquatus, and his statue has been towering here since 1839. His name was used to name the church and Lake Como, and his glory shines this town and brought it to the world's name. The fight is shifted, the blink is 1927, and the scientific giants have left our entire 100th anniversary. Already a quiet and quiet, Komo suddenly looked up, and the new era of science pages gathered here, and discussed the latest progress in physics while commemorating the ancestors. The Common Conference invited almost all of the most outstanding physicists at the time, and it was a grand meeting. Waiting in the conference, including Boir, Heisen, Planck, Bubble, Bon, Lorenz, Debroe, Fermi, Kramer, Laure, Compton, Weagna, Sony , Dubai, Von Niman (of course, strictly said that this person is a mathematician) ... Unfortunately, Einstein and Schrödinger do not have a need, failed to attend. The absence of the main enemy of Copenhagen was launched for a few months later. It is also not possible to get to Como and there is Dirac and Banguar. Among them, the book is quite bizarre: The General Assembly was originally invited to him, but the invitation sent to "Bolty Professor of the Physics of Kolkata University." Obviously this letter is sent to the famous S.N. Blass, that is, the bicycose of the bicycle - Einstein, he and Einstein also predicted a famous glass-Einstein coacer. In 2001, three scientists from the United States and Germany were awarded the Nobel physics award because of experiments. However, in 1927, the glass was long since left in Kol, and I went to Dhaka University. But there is no book, Kolkata also has a D.M. Blass. Under the income of the wrong, this "Blass", "Banguang", participated in the Collection of Star Clouds, and it is also a big talker after the meal. In the process of preparing a speech of Commerce, the idea of ​​complementary principles is further formed in Bohr brain. He decided to disclose this bold thinking at this meeting. While preparing for the speech, he also wrote a text to the Nature magazine to introduce this discovery, things too much and time rush, and finally did his hand. At a moment before departure, he couldn't find his passport - this delayed a few hours of train. However, no matter what, Boir finally completed the speeches of up to 8 pages and made a successful speech at the General Assembly. This speech is "the recent development of quantum business and atomic theory", in which Boir first describes the bienoxynynumbles of the wave-grain, and clarifies the attitude towards the world's scale world with unparalleled principle. He emphasized the importance of observations, claiming that complete independent and absolute measurements did not exist. Of course, the complementary principle itself has not fully fixed this time, and it has been to the Soli Conference, but this idea has now caused people's attention. Bonn praised Boir "Temple" point of view and emphasized the uncertainty of quantum theory. He specially raised the example of the wave function "collapsed". This "collapsed" obviously causes Vonnieman's interest, and he will prove some interesting nature on it.

Heisenberg and Clause have also commented. Of course, we also have to point out that many people who do not belong to "Copenhagen" are unfamiliar with the ideas and work of Boirs et al., This complementary principle is confused to them. Many people think that this is just a word game, which is a matter of understanding of everyone. As Rosenfeld, Rosenfeld commented in the interview show: "This complementary principle is only a description of the situation you know clearly ... Komo Conference did not clarify the argument, and the definition of the concept was later made "Eugene Wigner Summary:" ... (Everyone thinks that Bohr's speech) has failed to change any person about the understanding of quantum theory. "But the historical role of Como Conference is still not Underestimation, complementary principle The first public appearance, marking a key step in the interpretation of Copenhagen. Soon the speech of Boir soon, the content has been improved, and the final maturity of this explanation is only the final step. While Copenhagen gathered, their opposition also began to prepare for the final decisive battle. For Einstein, a physical world without strict causes is unimaginable. Physical law should rule everything, physics should be simple and clear: A leads to B, B caused C, C caused D. Every event has a dragon desertion, the cause result, and does not depend on what "randomness". As for abandoning objective, it is incredible. These thoughts have been first exposed from his views of the electronic transition of Boce. In 1924, he insisted that he was writing to Bonn: "I am never willing to be forced to give up strict causality and will have a strong defense. I think it is completely unable to tolerate such an idea, that is, the electronic is radiated. Looking, not only the jump moment, but also its transition direction, it is selected by its own 'free will'. "The old quantum theory has made Einstein unrecognizable, then more" crazy "new quantum theory is more He couldn't bear it. Although Einstein himself has put forward the proposition of the light quantity, it has made an indelible contribution in the development of quantum theory, but now he is completely turned to the opposite of this newborn theory. Einstein firmly believes that the foundation of quantum has a large problem, and it will be able to pick out the spurs, forcing people to return to a strict, causal theory. Boir later recalled: "Einstein is best not to abandon continuity and calendering experience, he is more reluctant to give up these concepts more than others." The two giants failed to meet in Como. However, it is not seen that the fate has been arranged in the past, and the meeting is inevitable. Just more than a month later, another historic moment came, the 5th Solidian meeting was held in Brussels, Belgium. This time, all the people finally gathered together, and made a big battle on the problem of quantum theory. From the elderly from the golden age, the rebellion of the rebellion, the solemn retreat of the classic system in the revolutionary wave, the adventurer in the new era, this time, it is finally broken. The presence of the Century big debate is about to open, like a big fire burning, and the quantum theory will accept the most stringent baptism in this fire, and forged more rays. Brussels saw. ******** After the meal, gossip: Heisenberg and Germany Atomic Bomb Program (1) Bohr - Einstein's dispute is the most famous debate in the history of the 20th century, then Hesensburg in World War II The role in the middle is the biggest puzzle in the history of the history of the 20th century. I don't know how many historians spend the water, involving countless cross-borders. Even now, some people continue to discover objections. I intend to talk about this topic in my gossip in this chapter, this matter is talking about the length, maybe it can use a whole chapter, we still talk less, you start.

Why didn't Nazi Germany can't make atomic bombs? Almost everyone in the war is asking this question. Is it the reason for policy? Theoretical reason? Technical reason? Reason for resources? Or Is the reason for morality? Yes, the United States has an atomic bomb, they have an Aubenhemad, FaMe, Lawrence, Bet, Siber, Weagna, Chadwick, Pels, Frisi, Sagray, and later There is also Bohr, which is in a small character such as imaginary expenses, and Los Alamos is also known as "the concentration camp of Nobel winners." But Germany is not bad. Yes, Hitler's Jewish policy drove almost half of the elite in China. The first year of Nazi came to the stage, there were approximately 2,600 scholars left Germany, and quarter physicists resigned from Germany. A 40% professor has lost his position on the eve of the war. Yes, the entire axis has lost up to 27 Nobel winners, including Einstein, Schrödinger, Fermi, Bonn, Bubble, and Dubai, this figure is still not indirect loss. Such as Boir. But Germany still has the ability to fight against the world with its amazing strength. The war is a burst, and Germany launches the research plan of the atomic bomb. At that time, in 1939, the world only had a military application project that Germany in conducting such an atomic energy. Germany occupies the world's largest uranium mine (in Czechoslovakia), Germany has the most powerful chemical industry in the world. They still have the best scientists in the world. The fission of atoms is two Germans - Otto? Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann found in the previous year, both of them were still in Germany, and Hun will soon find the Nobel Chemical Award. Of course, there are more than these two people, Germany also has Lloyd (1914 Nobel Physics), Bothe, 1954 Nobel Physics, Gay Leather (inventors of the Garden Counter, he conducted α-scattering experiments), Weizak (KURL VON Weizsacker), Bagh Bagge, Diba (Kurt Diebner), Karl Wirtz ... of course, they also have the sea of ​​Neishesen, this 20th century One of the greatest physicists. All of these scientists have participated in Hitler's atomic bomb programs and become one of the members of the "Uranium Club". Heisenberg is the head of this plan. However, Germany did not make atomic bombs, and it didn't even got it. Since 1942, Germany seems to have given up the entire primary bomb plan, and it is changed to study a atomic nuclear reactor that provides energy. The main reason is that in June 1942, Heisenborg reported Albert Speer, the uranium plan was difficult to produce any actual results in a short period of time in a short period of time, and during the war. Possible. But he also believes that Spear believes that Germany's research is still in the leading position. Spern reported this situation Hitler. At that time, due to the urgent situation of the entire battlefield, Germany's research plans were forced to take a righteousness of a long time, that is, in a short period of time, exactly the effective plan in six weeks. Temporarily put on one side. Hitler and Sperda have consensus: Don't spend too much for atomic bombs, but since this is still "leading" in this area, you may wish to continue granting research. At that time, Heisenberg applied for additional budget only had a 35 million mid Mark, and it did not have a lot of affected.

After nearly 2 years after being put on by the top, finally in 1944, I noticed. He ordered vigorously funding, promoting the advancement of the atomic bomb plan and built several new uranium works. The plan did make progress, but at that time, the German industry has long been destroyed by the allies' bombing and difficult to further support. And it is too late, and Germany is surrendered soon. What is the 1942 report? What kind of role in Hesenburg played? This answer is confusing, and historians have to hold the words, they are not disclosed by new evidence, I am afraid that people are still in the clouds. This is a famous "Herostel Mystery" in the history of the scientific history.

The two Soli-dimensional conference was created by an industrial eERNEST SOLVAY in Belgium, and naming his name. In 1911, the first Solidi Conference was held in Brussels. Although he was interrupted by the First World War, it has been resumed from 1921, and a period of three years is held regularly. By 1927, this is the 5th Solidian meeting, perhaps, this will also be the most famous Solidian conference. This meeting made up for the regret of Como, Einstein, Schrödinger and others are all as if it is approximately. The photo of the "Physics All-Star Dream Team" currently spread is the photo of this meeting. Of course, the world is no perfection, hard to pick out some defects, that is, Sori Philippi and John is not in it, but we can not be too high, life is not as good as it is still ten. This meeting ranged from October 24 to 29 for a period of 6 days. The theme is "Electronic and Photon" (we still remember "is a new name, which has just been raised by Americans Lewis in 1926), the agenda of the meeting: First, Lawrence Prague is the experiment report on the X-ray, The Compton is then reported to Cutton experiment and its inconsistencies and classic electromagnetic theory. Next, Debroyi is a speech of quantum, mainly about the particles Debroyibo. Subsequently Bonn and Heisenburg introduced the matrix theory of quantum mechanics, and Schrödinger introduced wave mechanics. Finally, Bohr once again made the report on the quantity of the submersible and atomic new theory on the basis of Como, and further summarizes complementary principles, and puts the entire philosophical foundation for quantum theory. This agenda itself is simply a miniature history of quantum, which can be obviously divided into three pieces: Experimental sent to the experimental results: Prague and Compton; Copenhagen: Boce, Bohen and Heisenberg; also Copenhagen Debricu, Schrödinger, Einstein, sitting under the stage. The atmosphere of the meeting was hot from the beginning. Like the Fighter competition, there was a series of mats before the arrival: everyone will explore the experiment of Compton, and then each person is divided into a distinct camp, mutual Cannon. Debroyi made a speech first, he tried to fuse the particles into the image of the wave, proposed a "spread Wave) theory, and believe that the particles are a singular point of the fluctuation equation, it must be waved Control and guidance. The bubble stands up and criticizes this theory. He first can't tolerate the historical wheel reversal, returns to a traditional image, and then he has led a series of experimental results to refute Debron. As we all know, the bubble is the world's first sniper, who is staring for him, is not good at the end, Debroe finally has to disclose his point of view. Fortunately, Schrödinger is coming to help, but he still insists on a very traditional explanation. This even the Allied Debric is not very satisfied, and the bubble has long laughed to "childish". Bonn and Hesenburg hid behind it behind the Copenhagen bunker. They finally said in the report: "We advocate that quantum mechanics is a complete theory. Its basic physical fake and mathematical assumptions cannot be further revised." They It also concentrated the firepower violently attacked Schrödinger's "electronic cloud", and the latter believed that electrons did actually spread in the space. Hesenburg commented: "I can't see anything from Schrödinger's calculations to prove that the fact is like what he hopes." Schrödinger admitted that his calculation is really not satisfactory, but he still insists, talking about electronic tracks It is "Waffle" (should be a superimposed superimposed), Bonn returns to the road: "No, it is not a bad thing.

"In a smoke, the organizer of the meeting, the old qualified Lorenz also published some conservative ideas, And so on and so ... Einstein did not move, maintain terrible silence, but as Beni After his name, he finally couldn't help but attacked. He proposed a model: an electron gets a diffraction image through a small hole. Einstein pointed out that there are two views, the first is to say that there is no "one Electronics, only "a group of electronic clouds", it is a space in a space, description of Debroyi - Schrödingero. The second is to say that there is an electronics, and ψ is its "chance distribution", electronic It does not spread into the air, but a chance to wave. Einstein admitted that II is more complete than the point of view i, because it consists of views I. Despite this, Einstein still said, he had to oppose Ii. Because this randomness indicates that the same process will produce many different results, and in this way, many areas on the induction screen will respond to the observation of electronics at the same time, which seems to hint a hurting effect. It is made to violate the relativity. Fengyun change, dragon tiger, and now the behind-the-scenes of the two camps will finally go to the stage, began to make a single picking of destiny. Unfortunately, the original discussion record of Boho et al. Is not official. The information is saved, and the reconstruction of the scene is mainly relying primarily on several parties. This is the "Einstein" in Atomic Physics in 1949 to celebrate Einstein 70-year-old birthday. Discussing the discussion of "Changwen, there are recalls and letters of Heisenberg, Debroyi and Eleng Phstics. At that time, the electronic problem we have described in the problem is double Pre-dilemma: How to choose its path and quickly shut down / open a slit affecting electronics. There are many other ways of thinking. Elan Fest is writing to him the disciple of staying in Leon. Documentary in the letter of Wuse and Gude Schmidt, Einstein, like a spring doll, split in the box every morning, and Bolu's philosophy from the cloud Find tools, crush all the arguments all in the other party. Heemsen 1967 memories said: "The discussion will become a duel between Einstein and Boce: Atom's theory How to do to see how difficult the difficulties in the difficulties do decades? We generally meet with breakfast in the hotel, so Einstein depicts a thinking experiment, he believes that it can clearly see the internal contradictions explained by Copenhagen. Then Einstein, Bol and I walked together to the venue, I can listen to the discussion of the two philosophical attitudes, I often insert a few words in mathematical expressions. In the middle of the conference, especially during the meeting, we have these young people - most of them are me and bubble - try to analyze Einstein experiments, and discuss in Bol and other during lunch The people from Copenhagen are going on. Generally speaking, Boir is in the evening of these ideal experiments, and he analyzes them to Einstein at dinner. Einstein did not refute these analyzes, but he was uncomfortable in his heart. "Einstein is of course uncomfortable. He is so pious to believe in fruit laws, with a consciousness of Copenhagen's cynical probability. Bohore recalls that Einstein asks him like him, is he really believed God's power relies on the o der liebe gott würfelt? God does not want to throw the dice! This is not the first time Einstein. He said: "Quantum is written in 1926. Mechanics is impressive, but an intrinsic voice tells me that it is not true. This theory has produced a lot of good results, but it does not make us closer to the mystery of 'old man'.

I don't have to keep it, 'old man' is not a dice. "The old man" is Einstein's nickname to God. However, in 1927 this Huashan, Einstein lost a trick. It is not a sword, it is insufficient. In the face of the vast historical trend, He is tenacious and struggling, and the result is stood unstable and hard to support. In 1927, the big outbreak of the quantum revolution has entered the third year, and the stage of the end of the year. The seed below is now flowering, revolution The trend of the trend has swept the entire physical circles, and there is no need to specify the future direction. More and more people have finally realized the core Ilisions explained by Copenhagen, and sincerely convert them, they are in the quantum door. Einstein but did not persuade Boir, but often refuteed to it, and his "reactionary" attitude has attracted many people to sigh. In the past, 1905, Einstein was born, six times within a year, every business They all played the sky, shocking, and creating a vigorous career. At that time, the juvenile is ivual, and the group of horses, rising the whip, smiling, this legendary picture has left the eternal God. ! However, that year, the most rebellion, the most revolutionary, the most unfair gift, the most prudent authority Einstein, now stands in the opposite of the new quantum theory! Bonn lamented: "We lost our leaders. "Ellenfust said to Einstein:" Einstein, I feel red for you! " You put yourself in the same position as those who want to overthrow the relativistic person. "Einstein loses the wolf, Bohl looks silence, but the heavy sword is no cold, and it is too uncomfortable. It has almost no serious debate in his life. Copenhagen and it's quantum The interpretation of the aphrology, Heisenberg said in the letter written to the home: "I am very satisfied with the results, Bohr and my point of view have been widely accepted, at least no one has given strict refutation, even Einstein and Schrödinger can't. "He summed up for many years:" When you start (holding this view) is mainly Boir, bubble and me, probably only three, but it quickly spread. "But Einstein is not the kind of person who is easy to be defeated. He is standing against the wind. He is still unfair. He still stands two times behind him, one is Debroe, one is Schrödinger. Three people With the wind, the clothes fluttering, in the dawn of the quantum era, there is a tragicity of Chang Hanri, Yishui Xiao Xiao, vows and classic theory, the time, the time, one, one, one, three years, each Fang Junjie also resembles Brussels, meets the 6th Soli Conference. Three years ago, the battle has become a past, this second time Huashan, sword, no one, who is negative? ******** * Gossip: Heisenberg and Germany Atomic Bomb Program (2) In 1944, the Allies landed in Normandy, forming two-sided clamping trend. In April 1945, Nazi Germany has grown, the end of the European battlefield is already in front of him. The task in front of the Americans is now as searching for German residual scientists and equipment instruments, and does not let them fall into other countries (Soviet Union does not have to say, France is not good). Search for Berlin first It is hopeless, they turn to the south, and quickly captured the German uranium planned scientists and seized most of the information and equipment.

At that time, Heisenberg had left the home of Urfeld in advance, and this place was still in the Germans, but in order to get the "first goal" of Hesson, the Allies sent a small team, On May 3, the fourth day after the Hitler had committed suicide, and he seized him in Heisenberg. This scientist is a decent manner, he politely introduces his wife and children, and asks those US soldiers, they think how German scenery. On May 7, Germany surrendered. The most famous scientists in Germany were secretly sent to the UK, and closed in a house called "Farm Hall) near the Cambridge. They don't know that the house is filled with the eavesdropper, and they have been recorded in this conversation and record it, and we will talk about these critical records later. On the evening of August 6, the news of Hiroshima atomic bomb exploded, which made everyone shocked. With regard to the detailed scenario at the time, we will talk later. These scientists were released after the war. But now, no matter how experts or the public, why did Germany fail to make an atomic bomb? It is absolutely unacceptable to admitting it is absolutely unacceptable to a German scientist. During the imprisonment, the third day after Hiroshima, Heisenberg and other people were drafted, claiming: 1. Atomic fission is the Germans, Hun and Stelasman found in 1938. 2. After the war broke out, Germany established a related research team. But from the time of Germany, it is impossible to create an atomic bomb, because there is a possibility that there is a problem, especially more heavy water. After returning to Germany, Heisenberg drafted a more detailed statement. It is roughly that the German group has long realized that uranium 235 can be used as a reactor or bomb, but it is an extremely difficult thing to separate rare isotropic uranium 235 from natural uranium. (* Here to supplement the common sense of the original bullet: When a neutron bombardment is easy to divide the uranium 235 atomic nucleus, it will crack it into two halves, simultaneously release more neutron to further bombard the nuclear nucleus. This causes a series of chains. In response, a large amount of energy is released at each split, which is a "chain reaction" that is usually said. But only uranium 235 is unstable and easy to fissure, its isothetic uranium 238 is not, so it must improve the concentration of uranium 235 In order to trigger a sustainable reaction, other neutrons are absorbed by uranium 238. However, uranium 238 in natural uranium accounts for more than 99%, so I have to separate the uranium 235, which is extremely difficult to at the time. Hesenburg said, separating sufficient uranium 235 requires a lot of resources and human materials, which is difficult to complete during the war. German scientists also realized another possible way, that is, although uranium 238 itself cannot split, it absorbs neutron and will decay in another element -. In the case of such elements, like uranium 235, a chain reaction can be formed. However, in any case, the premise is to have an atomic reactor, and the reactor manufacturing atom needs neutron reducer. A good decelerator is a heavy water, but for Germany, the only heavy water source is in a factory in Norway, and the factory has been destroyed multiple times by the Allies' development. All in all, Heisenberg's subtext is the same, German scientists and allies scientists are the same in theory and technical advantages. But because Germany lacks corresponding resources, the German abandoned this plan. He claims that until 1942, the progress of both parties is also "basically the same", but Germany believes that there is no condition (rather than there is no theoretical ability) during the war, so it is converted into reactor energy research. .

Heisenberg claimed that German scientists realized that the ethical problem caused by the atomic bomb, such a weapon such a big kill made them aware of the responsibility of human beings. But the obligation to the country (not Nazi) makes them have to put into work. However, they have contradictory, negative and negative work, and intentionally exaggerate the difficulty of manufacturing, so the high-level believes in the atomic bomb in 1942 did not make practical significance. In addition, the deterioration of the external environment makes the actual manufacturing become impossible, which makes German scientists among a breath, because they don't have to make this morality decision with Antiggne in the tragedy. In this way, the scientific advantage of the Germans has been maintained, and it defended a moral position. Two whole beauty. This kind of saying is provoked Gude Schmidt, and he is an important leader of the Manhattan program, which is also a good friend of Heisenberg. He believes that the technical principles and key parameters of the Germans and allies are the technical principles and key parameters of the original bullets. In 1942, Heisenburg reported that it was difficult to manufacture atomic bombs in a short term, that is because the Germans have made a wrong parameter, they really believe that it is impossible to make it, not anything that is frank and a snake, there is no negative. The average status of Gude Schmidt, has a lot of information, including German secret report, and he quickly wrote a book called ALSOS, mainly introducing the process of the Manhattan program, but also reporting the situation in Germany. How can Hesenburg will be associated with the Nature magazine and a public debate on Nature magazine and newspapers, and it has been intermittently and continued to play a lot of young people, and finally, it can't. The two parties have supporters. The "New York Times" communications reporter Kaempffert defends Hesenburg, saying that there is a big wave of anxiety: "The liars can't get the Nobel Award!" The meaning of the words is naturally lying. This taste is definitely not good for the latter. Everyone knows that Gude Schmidt is one of the discovers of the electronic spin, so that he has not won the Nobel Prize in this great discovery, many people are not flat. ALSOS's publisher Schuman is really written to Einstein, asked "Nobel winners really don't lie?" Einstein had to reply. "Lying can't get Nobel, but you can't exclude Some luckyers will ly in specific occasions at a specific occasion under pressure. "Einstein probably remembered Lead and Stark, two goods, genuine Nobel winners, crazy attacking him and relativity in order to fanatics, this Scenario is still in front of you.

The three flowers bloom, yellow leaves were drifted, and the autumn wind season was held in Brussels in Brussels. Bol is coming to the venue, see Einstein's expression like smile, eat not to practice any new tricks in the three years, I don't know what realm. However, Bol is not too worrying. The rise of quantum is already the fact that the top is nail, and now the whole system is stable, and the branches are governed. Einstein is more powerful, and it is difficult to shake its foundation with one person. Bolbur's disciples, Heisenberg, Bubble, etc., nowadays, the big men in the unique side, Copenhagen sent a famous physical world, and Bohore can't eat a big loss. Einstein is in a discussion: the quantum is unhappy, when it is strong, it is really difficult to defeat it. But can't it be so forth? It is impossible, quantum theory must be wrong! Well, I want to think about it, I want to break the quantity, only the bottom of the supra, and defeat the foundation. Einstein knows with the experience of Boir, can't fight in the details, quantum theory is like the nine blame Hydera (Hydra) in mythology, you cut off it right Will regenerate one. Must be aimed at the most critical head, this head is the essence of its essence - uncertainty! Einstein stood up: Imagine a box, there is a small hole above, and there is a shutter that can control its open and closed, there are several photons in the box. Ok, suppose the shutter can control enough, it is so short each time, so that only one photon is allowed to fly away from the box each time. Because of the short period of time, ΔT is small enough. Then there is less in the box, it's a little bit a little bit, which can be measured in an ideal call. If it is light △ m, then it is said that the photon weight M flying out is, depending on the quality equation E = MC ^ 2 according to the relative quality equation, the reduced energy ΔE can be accurately calculated. Then, △ E and △ T are determined that the formula ΔE × △ t> h / 2π of Heisenberg is not established. So the entire quantum is wrong! This can be said that Einstein condensed the hit of the lifelong kung fu, which also included his name stunt. This is like a white rain, it is resistant to the day, and it is calm, and it is clean and beautiful. Boir is prepared for this, and he is shocked, and no counterattack will be made. According to eyewitnesses, he became like a dead ash, stayed with a wooden chicken (not a metaphor!), And the tongue did not speak. He is not happy all night, searching for shaping, hard thinking. Rosenfield later description: "(Bol) strongly lobbying everyone, trying to make them believe that Einstein is impossible, otherwise, it is the end of physics. But he can't think of any rebuttal I will never forget the scenes of the two opponents to leave the venue: Einstein's figure is solemn, with a ridicule smile, quietly walk out. Boir followed the road, he was excited, the word I don't want to definitely say that Einstein's device is really managed, physics is finished. "This trick is so thick and perfect, impeccable? Boir is in this critical moment, and the folk is very colorful. After a night, he finally came up with the method of cracking this trick, a more wonderful smoking. Rosenfield then said: "The next morning, Bohr's victory came. Physics also saved." Bol pointed out: Ok, a photon ran, and the box lighted △ m.

How do we measure this △ m? Use a spring, set a zero point, then look at the box displacement. It is assumed that the displacement is △ Q, so that the box moves ΔQ in the gravitational field, but according to the red shift effect of general relativity, the time is slow, and the corresponding ΔT is also changed. It can be calculated from the formula: Δt> h / △ mc ^ 2. Reproduces the quality formula ΔE = △ MC ^ 2, then the final result is that this result is that it is so eye: △ t △ e> h, is the Heisenberg is not allowed! We can ignore the derivation of mathematics. The key is Einstein to ignore the red shift effect of general relativity! The gravity field can make the atomic frequency be lowered, which is red shift, equivalent to time slowing down. When we measure a very accurate △ m, we have changed a large extent that the clock in the box has caused a large uncertain ΔT. That is, in Einstein's device, if we measure △ m, or △ E, we can't control the time t that escapes from the photon! Generalized relative to the discipline of Einstein, Bluo, this trick, "Taking the way, but also", "not only blocked the Thunder of Einstein, but also put this kind of tricks back. He himself. Although it is precisely, I finally wanted this method, but the tricks were quite, the talents were full, and the teachings hit the sighs, and the eyes were open. I feel that the two longitudinal wits are full of fighting, it is really worthless. I can't say that I can't say anything in Einstein. Is it true that the quantum is returned to the matter, strict causality is really late, no longer belonging to this rebellious new era? Boir is the most determined revolutionist, his thoughts are far-reaching, poor, but like the big rush, vast, turn-free. The future of physics only relying on quantum, this weird but powerful elf is developing. The new world will no longer have causality, no more realities, may make people feel less secure, but it is like the chest is big, the gas is pound, there are precious treasures and exciting secrets waiting for people to discover people. . Dirak later said that since Hesenbao has made breakthroughs, theoretical physics has entered an unprecedented golden age, and any second-class student may make first-class discovery. Yes, people should go into such a vibrant, full of hardship, challenges, and unveiled new era, and decorate the old photos of the Old Yellow. Going to the old days of the old day. revolution! go ahead! Bohore has begun to shake and arrogant in the conference. Einstein's light box experiment did not hit down quantum theory, but became its best proof, giving it the glorious touch of it. Now there is nothing to doubt, causality does not exist, Copenhagen explains that the wildfire is generally spread in people's thoughts. Boir is the flagner of this revolution, his generous words, like Robert, Roberty, in the past. If possible, he probably wants to come to this sentence: causality must die, because physics needs to be born! Stop the argument, God really throws the dice! Randomness is the cornerstone of the world. When the electronic appears here, it is a random process, and it does not need anyone who adds an unbearable bar frame. The particles and waves in the whole world have been liberated, struggled in the script written from Newton and Maxwell, and breathe free air in the big mouth. They play with observers to hide and seek, melt into probability waves behind them, mysteriously penetrate and interfere. When the observer goes back to find them, they are happy to come out, presenting a look waiting there.

This kind of game is not overflow because there is also the role of the fluctuation equation and uncertain principle play a rule. The statistical rules will make a microscopically unable to become a macro well. Einstein looked at this scene in disappointment, and the development of such a way is really not as good. There is no causality, a chaotic ... I am afraid John Milton depicting the "Pandemonium" like this? Einstein has two war two battles. He now knows that the foundation of quantum is much more powerful than imagination. It seems that the quantum is unlikely, or contradicts it. But Einstein will never believe it represents the truth. Ok, there is no contradiction inside the quantum, but it is not a "complete" image. The quantum theory we see may be just a peak, although it sees a true part, but still has more "real" failed. There must be some other factors, although they don't see what we have, but undoubtedly have an impact on the behavior of electrons, so that they have determined their behavior. It is better than we gamble in the casino, although we look at everything around the eyes, determine no one cheating, but there may be a secret martial arts master, with some unique techniques such as blowing to affect the results of the dice. Although we can't work horizontally, I can't find this martial arts master. I feel that the dice is completely random, but in fact is not! It is completely, if this hidden master is also taken into account, it has strict causal relationship! Although it is only a contradiction from us, there is nothing contradictory, but a "complete" image should contain the hidden person, this person is a "hidden variety"! Anyway, causal relationship can't give up! The belief of Einstein has almost become a kind of faith, and he has decided to fight for the classic theory. This is not known to be a scientific tragedy or harvest. On the one hand, the big fearless leader, the passionate pioneer will never disappear from history. Abraham Pais said in the book "Einstein once stayed here", even after 1925, Einstein changed fishing to spend the rest, this is no loss in science. On the other hand, Einstein criticized the criticism and questioning of the quantum really made it three provinces, calmly examines and thinking about the meaning of ourselves, and constantly improving themselves in the struggle. Probably calculate a reverse incentive? Anyway, he will soon propose a new experiment as a further test of quantum theory. Poor Burdain has been recruiting the third time. ******** After meals, gossip: Heisenberg and Germany Atomic Bomb Program (3) The taste of Hessoros is very interesting: annoying Nazi and Hitler, but faithfully implement the obligation to the motherland, Part of the national machine to fulfill the responsibilities of patriotism. This sounds like a typical German scene. Service, this is part of the German culture, people in the English world seem to deal with an evil regime, in line with moral way, is not working with it or even destroy it, but Hessenburg and others, in line with moral way It was obedient from it - as he said later, although the Nazi occupation of Europe is not a good thing, but for a German, it may be better to be occupied by others. After a battle, the tragic scene has been unbearable. Atomic bomb, for Heisenberg, it is "essentially" evil, whether it is serving Hitler, or for other people. There is a universal disgust to Hesenberg after the war. When Hesenburg came to Los Alamos, the scientists there were refused to shake their hands, because he was "manufacturing the original bullet for Hitler."

This seems to be a big grievance in Hessonberg, he can't believe that "people who actually make the atomic bomb" actually refused to shake hands with him! Maybe in his heart, the League scientists should be more condemned than themselves. However, it is obvious that the latter seems to be evil for Hitler manufacturing the original bullets, and if you have studied this weapon with the purpose of destroying Hitler and Fas, it is very justice and morality. This morality is generally existently among the two sides. Weizak once excited: "History will witness, and the American and British have made a bomb, while the German - Germans under Hitler regime - the development of uranium engine power. "This is in an American, I am afraid I have to go." What's more, in many people, this statement is purely a horse behind. If the German really makes the atomic bomb, I am afraid that London has disappeared from the earth, and it will not speak this big ventilation in Luoli. Yes, Heisenberg is certainly aware of the uranium bomb in 1940, but this does not indicate how he is exactly how to make it! Hesenburg was very difficult to separate uranium 235 in Germany in 1942, but this does not show that he is exactly how to separate "how much" uranium 235! In fact, many evidence suggests that Hesenburg is very incorrectly estimated that in order to maintain a chain reaction, at least there must be at least one minimum amount of uranium 235, which is called "critical mass", sea Senburg - no matter what he is really wrong or pretending - I think at least a few tons of uranium 235 can be used in 1942 to create an atomic bomb! In fact, as long as it is tens of kg. It is very difficult to in which only such uranium 235 is only separated. The United States has used 15,000 people and invests more than 2 billion US dollars to complete the entire Manhattan program. The whole of Germany has only more than 100 people in the matter, with a total funds, but there are about Million Mark, which is a joke. But this is not the key. The key is that Hesenburg knows not to know the exact number? If he does have an accurate figure concept, then although this German is still difficult, at least not, it is difficult to overcome. The United Kingdom is equally difficult, but they know the accurate critical quality of the critical quality, so she still horses the atomic bomb plan. Hesenburg argues that he is very clear about this, he cited many evidence to illustrate the accurate number in front of him. Unfortunately, his evidence is full of unclear, and it cannot be determined. The German report did need to say a bomb may take 10-100 kg, Heisenberg also portrayed a bomb of "pineapple" size, which is considered by many people. However, these all refer to a bomb, not a uranium 235 bomb. These figures are not proven, but guess, Germany does not have a large amount of plutonium. German scientists have revealed such an impression in many times, and the uranium bomb requires at least a few tons of uranium 235. However, you can also understand from the opponum, Hesenburg deliberately concealed the figures, only knowing that he knows him. He caused a fake phase that was exaggerated. As for the reactor, in fact, graphite can also do a good deceleration, and Americans use graphite. However, when the Heisenberg appointed Potter to do experiments, his results were wrong, showing that graphite is not suitable for use in the reactor, so the German has only hangs on the tree of heavy water. This is another suspension. Heisenberg pushed the responsibility to Potter, saying that the graphite he used was not pure, thus causing the entire plan to fail. Potter is a very famous experimental physicist, and later got the Nobel Prize, this black pot will be willing. He wrote a letter to Heithberg, suggesting that graphite is pure, and it is in line with the theory! If the experiment is wrong, it is not like the theory, the theory is responsible.

In the initial statement, Central Hesenburg was forced to withdraw the accusation of Potter, but in the years, he, Wei Zick, Woz and others continued to bring Portrai to the top guilty. At present, the Germans are wrong in the same year, whether theory or experiment is. The debate of this public case has gradually fierce. The most influential books are: Robert Jungk's "Bright" than a thousand sun "(BRIGHTER THAN THOUSAND SUNDS, 1956), this book commends the nobleness of German scientists Morality, do not forget human myside during the war, although insight into the mystery of the original bullet, but does not open this Pandora box. In 1967, David Irving published the German Atomic Bomb. At this time, the Secret Weapon Report of Germany has already got a wealth of information to works. Although IRVING did not think that German scientists had noble morality, he still believed that the Germans were clear about atomic bomb technology. Then, Margaret Gowing is about the history of the British nuclear program. Insiorgano says that the Germans have been wrong in some basic problems, which make Hessoros himself very annoyed. He said: "(This book) is wrong, every sentence is wrong, it is completely non-told." He then published a famous autobiography "Physics and beyond, nature again Emphasized the morality and scientific level of Germans. Anyone who has a little relationship with this matter has issued comments, and the people have fallen, such as contest, no one can convince each other. In 1989, Yang Zhenning also said when he speech in Shanghai, "... ... very good Hesenbao Biography has not been written yet, and there is a lot of biography is unknown ... this is a very complicated history. I believe that someone in the future will write important Hesenburg's biography. "Fortunately, from the time, things are finalized, there is a fundamental change.

Four Einstein did not attend the 7th Soli Conference in 1933. He was forced to leave his hometown by Nazi Germany, which was exotic, and thoughtfully thought of Europe's tragic future. On the other hand, the issue of this Soli Conference is also not a quantum theory itself, and it is replaced with another exciting topic: the explosive development of atomic physics. However, the achievements in this field are of course also achieved on the basis of quantum, and the basic form of quantum mechanics has been determined, and become the basis of physics. It seems that dust is settled, no one has doubted its power and correctness. In a person's optimism, Einstein and Schrödinger have more than lonely. Schrödinger and Debrovan participated in the 1933 Soli Conference, but did not speak, maybe they are not familiar with this field. New and new humans are exciting to explore the production and annihilation of matter, positively electron, heavy water, neutron ... The new discovery is dazzling, and it is too busy. What can Einstein do now? Is it true that their thoughts are so late, can't keep it in the new era? On September 25, 1933, Elanfister shot his son with intellectual obstacles in the Netherlands, and then committed suicide. He said in a letter left to Einstein and Boir and other friends: "I am increasingly difficult to understand the rapid development of physics in the past few years, I have tried, but it is more desperate and torn, I finally decided to give up. Everything. My life is extremely tired ... I am only alive for the sources of the children, which makes me feel sin. I tried other methods but the effect is small, so I am more and more to consider suicide. All kinds of details, in addition to this, there is no second road ... forgive me. "In Einstein, the tragedy of Elan Fest is undoubtedly a tragedy of an era. The two generations of physicists have violent conflict and impact, and the floating in a day float is brought to the whole physics with a strong pain. Although Elanfister supported Boce from rational, when a cultural decline, people who were in a cultural culture must feel strong. The bleak old old in the past, from the new trend of spring bamboo shoots, from the quantum to quantum field, the various new particles in the atoms have emerged, and the wonderful concept ruled the whole world. What is the huge sadness of Einstein? Einstein is far away, standing alone on the other side of the gap, looking at the young people, singing to the distance, everyone said to him, he said to him. This feeling is so strange, it seems that the world is awkward and not true. It is no wonder that some people have sighed, I would rather die for a few years, and I don't want to see modern physics such as an unacceptable picture. However, Einstein still did not fall, although he was in a foreign land, his second wife was seriously ill, soon he will be separated from him, but this can not make Einstein to give up the strong belief in the inner heart, that For rugged causal relationships, for a universe-harmonious order. Einstein still chooses to fight, his figure is long, it seems that the brave old warrior makes the final tragic struggle for a lost kingdom. This time he won two alliances, they were his two colleagues Podolsky and Rosen (Nathan Rosen). In March 1935, three were published in the Physics Review magazine, and the name called "Quantum mechanics may be completely described in physical description? ", Once again initiate an attack on the basics of quantum theory. Of course they change the strategy, no longer say that the quantum is self-contradictory, or wrong, and it is "incomplete". Specifically, the interpretation of the three-person argument quantum is wrong to observe and wave functions.

We use a slightly simplified experiment to describe their main arguments. We already know that quantum disciating that the state of a particle is uncertain before we have no observation, and its wave function diffuses, represents its probability. But when we probed, the wave function collapsed, and the particles randomly took a determined value in front of us. Now let us imagine a large particle, it is unstable, will soon fall into two small particles, open to the opposite direction. We assume that this particle has two possible spins, named "left" and "right", then if the spin of the particles A is "left", the spin of the particles B must be "right" to maintain the overall Conservation, and vice versa. Ok, now the big particles are split, and the two small particles fly out. But to remember that before we don't have any of them, their state is uncertain, only one wave function can depict them. As soon as we don't detect, each particle spin is in a mixed state of the left / right possibility, in order to facilitate we assume that two probability is half a minute, 50% each. We look at the particles a, so its wave function has been collapsed in an instant, and a state is randomly selected, such as "left". But because we know that the two particles are generally conserved, then the particle B is definitely "right" is rotated. The problem is that before this, the particles A and the particles B may have been distinguished from very distant distance, such as tens of thousands of light years. How can they communicate in a timely manner, so that the particle B is resolutely collapsed in the particle A. The probability explanation of quantum tells us that particle a select "Left", it is a completely random decision, and the two particles have not negotiated in advance, and the particle A will definitely choose left. In fact, this choice is what it is observed, and there is no needon. The key is that when a randomly makes a selection, the B far in the sky must make corresponding collapses according to its decision, becoming a different state of A to maintain overall conservation. So, how does B know this distant information? Is there a signal that exceeds the speed of the radius? Assuming two observers are in the universe, they are waiting for rabbits, at a moment T, they also observed. An observation A, another simultaneous observation B, then these two particles will not be able to make a hand-held choice because of the distance too far, it is not possible to make a hand-held choice for the last caliber, such as two simultaneous "left", Or "right"? Obviously it is unlikely, otherwise it will violate the law of conservation, then what makes them maintain a tacit understanding of the heart, when you are "left", I must be "right"? Einstein and others believe that since it is impossible to have more than light speed signal communication, then particles A and B are "uncertain ghost" before observation, it is obviously difficult to say. The only thing that may be two particles from separation, its state has been determined, and later people's observations are only available in this state, just like the classic world. The particles becomes a real statement when observing the principle of relativity, which involves the signal of instantaving. This 诘 is difficult to name the three initiators, called "EPR 佯". Boir was shocked after getting this news, he immediately put down the other tasks of the hand, and came to the whole gods to deal with the challenges of Erinstein. The new way to take advantage of the new drill looks anger, macro the emperor, and it is quite heart, but Boir is also an old opponent of Einstein. After he slept, he immediately found the flaws. It turned out that this is a full-scale attack, but there is no substantial force.

Boir can't help but sing a small tone and ridicule Podolski. There is no common foundation for Einstein and Boce. In Einstein's subconscious, there is a classic "real" image. He is not allowed to assume that two particles in the EPR experiment have a "objective" spin state before observation, even if the probability is mixed, but the particles objectively exist there. However, Bohir means that there is no particle "spin" before observation! At that time, the spin particles did not exist, not an objective part, this can't be expressed in a classic language, only the wave function can be described. So before observation, two particles - no matter how far is much better - is still a whole integral! They still have to be seen as a whole time when the mother particles are divided, until it is observed, these two independent particles do not exist, more people can't talk about objective spins! This is the sharp conflict of Einstein and Bohr thought, Bohr believes that there is no objective independent world when there is no observation. The so-called "real" is only meaningful to talk to the observed means. Before observing, there is no "two particles", but only "a particle" until we observe A or B, the two particles become true, become an objective independent existence. But before that, they are still in touch with each other. There is no super-light speed signal, and the two distant particles are only in the universe when they observe, they are integrated, and there is no need to pass any signal. In fact, this system is not really true, not without domain. EPR 佯 佯 is actually nothing more, it shows up to "the" classic real view "seems that quantum is incomplete, which is not nonsense. But in Boir that "quantum is really viewing" seems very complete and logical. Both love, He Siki. The two centuries arguing into an end. Different in philosophy, the difference between the two people has not been adjusted until finally. It has never been dead, and Boir has not enabled Einstein to believe that the interpretation of quantum theory is complete. Bolbe him has also struggled with Einstein's thoughts. The next day after he died in 1962, people still discovered the sketches of Intian Einstein's optical box experiment on his blackboard. Both scientific giants have struggled for their respective beliefs, but other scientists have considered this dispute. Under the guidance of quantum theory, scientificity is so vigorous, and its branches have developed a great technical revolution to human society with rocket velocity. From the semiconductor to nuclear energy, from the laser to the electron microscope, from the integrated circuit to molecular biology, quantum disciating its glory to every corner of the human society, becoming the most successful physical theory in practical use. Many people think that arguing that the quantum is too laughing, just turned to the head, look at everything happened around, see the new day of society, the eyes, and the best proof of quantum theory. If the maximum value of EPR is, it is different from other fondoirs. As long as it is slightly modified, EPR can be tested for practice! Our historical call is here later, how people use practical ruling in the laboratory, the controversy of Einstein and Boce, the classic real concept is helpless, leaving only a desolate back and deep sigh. But quantum theory still plasted us. Its inner meaning is so confusing, making the interpretation of it still speaks. The achievements of quantum theory are undoubted, but people have never confirmed its true face, this argument has continued until today. It will bring some of the concept of creepy concepts into physics into physics, and you can't help but take a cold breath.

There is also a Schrödinger in the opposition there, he wants to release a terrible monster, bite people's ingredients and nerves, which is called "Schrödinger's cat" that many people think. ******** After meals, gossip: Heisenberg and Germany Atomic Bomb Program (IV) Heisenberg I have died in 1976. Two years after his death, the British Jones published the "High Secret War: British Science Intelligence Department" (Most Secret War: British Scientific Intelligentce) The wrong mistake. However, his analysis did not have to be trusted by Mark Walker, in the detailed "German National Socialism and Nuclear Forces" (published in 1989), Walker still believes Hesenburg In 1942, it is clear and knows the correct fact. By 1992, the University of Hofstra, David Cassid, published a famous Heisenburg biography "uncertainty: Heisenburg", which is still considered to be the standard biography of Heisenberg. He analyzed the whole thing, and finally stood on the position of Gude Schmidt and others. He believed that Hesenberg did not have a subjective wish to "destroy" an atomic bomb plan, he did not have a mistake. But soon, in 1993, the dramatic situation happened. Thomas PowerS wrote a master of Hyosenberg's War. Powers is a reporter who is very understandable to make the works readability. So although this thick book is 607 pages, but the text is quite, it is fascinating, soon become a best-selling work. Powers said that Heisenberg is more than just "negative" to treat the original bullet, but he is "actively" to destroy the success of this plan. He depicts a scene conspiracy, spy, plans, and later some people said that the first half of this book is simply a spy novel. Anyway, this book is very big in the public, Heisenberg as a noble, witty and just scientist's image is also deeply rooted in the hearts, and directly affects later drama "Copenhagen". From the above description, it can be seen that the views of this matter have produced how much extreme different views in just a few years, which is almost unique in the history of science. In 1992, a very important historical material was disclosed, that is, Heisenberg, who was prisoned in Farm Hall to eavesdrop. This stuff is a long-term confidentiality. You can only see a star half of the work of several news. In 1992, this document called Farm Hall Transcript was decrypted, and the University of California was published, causing a sensation. Powers has written his work with this new information. "Heisenberg's War" is read by the British reporter and writer Michael Frayn, which is deeply attracted by the latter, could not help but have a clever drama concept. At the heart of "The Mystery of Heisenburg", there is a very mysterious, long-term disputes for people, that is, in 1941, his visit to Boce. At that time, Denmark has been occupied by Germany, the Nazis's offensive at the European is like a broken bamboo. Heisenberg realized the possibility of atomic bomb manufacturing, he and Wei Zick two people hurriedly hoped by an academic conference, ran to Copenhagen to meet the teacher Boir. The purpose and conversation of this meeting have not been known, and Bolbe himself is unsatisfactory, and I don't talk about it. The only thing that can be determined is that two people are very unpleasant, Bol and Heisenburg have a father and son, but after this time I meet, I've been broken, and there is only the air on the surface.

What happened? Some people say Hesenburg went to warn Bohr to let him pay attention to the German plan. Some people say Hesenburg tried to pull Bohi into their plans. Some people say Hesenburg wants to explore the progress of the Allies in this regard. Some people say Hesensburg felt sin, to ask the "Pope" to Banya ... Michael Frayn is fascinated by Powers, Heisenberg goes to Copenhagen to the Boir Cautions in this regard, and try to achieve The agreement, both parties "destroy" this terrible plan. In other words, don't actively invest in the field of the atomic bomb, so everyone can be saved. This is almost a scene that can be encountered and unsweight, all kinds of complex environments and inner conflicts are intertwined together, entangled thousands of quarters, form a wonderful climax. On the one hand, Hesensburg has a strong patriotic enthusiasm and obedience, he can't reject orders for German services. However, Heisenberg struggled in human sense of responsibility and felt the moral feelings of scientists. And he is that it is afraid of the Allies to create an atomic bomb, causing forever scars to the motherland. Heisenburg face Boir, the great teacher Bohr, that he regarded Boho, as his father, I used to lead Fantastic Coco's Hagen, but the "enemy" Bohr, regarding Germany's glass , But teach people how to open, how to send words ... The memories of juvenile, physical thinking, beloved teachers, the realistic political, the motherland's feelings, human moral responsibility, war age ... How these these will produce? Language and thoughts? Is there more outstanding drama themes than this? The first scene of "Copenhagen" is arranged for Hesenburg: "Bohr, I must know (All the plan)! I am the person who can make the final decision! If the Allies are also manufacturing bombs, What kind of choice is I am doing for my motherland? ... If a person thinks if the motherland is wrong, he should not love her, that is wrong. Deutsche is a place to raise me, it is my growing adult. On the place, she is a face of my childhood. It is the pair of hands that I will support me when I fall. The sound of my courage to support my advancement is the soul of my heart directly. Germany. Germany It is my mother and hard brother. Germany is my wife. It is my child. I must know what kind of decision I am making her! Is it another failure? Another night, like me grows with me The same nightmare? Bol, I ended in the NG and civil war in Munich, our children are not hungry again, just like we are like me? In the cold winter night, the hands and feet are climbed through the enemy's blockade line, and in the dark cover, go to the snow, just to find some food in the home? Are they will be like me 17 years old, all night? Staying a panic prisoner, keep talking to them in the night, because they will be executed early in the morning? "The brutal two difficulties, resulting in a huge impact on the audience emotion, showing the entire complex humanity. The drama is essentially a series of conflicts, so wonderful themes have been destined to have a great drama work. But in history, such a wonderful scene is reliable. Michael Frayn he thought that Power is reasonable, at least he mastered the information that people did, that is, Farm Hall Transcript, but a pity that his treasure seems to be wrong.

5 Even if I get rid of Einstein, the quantum is not too easy. The problem about the measurement is always plaguing most physicists, but they usually be happy to think about it. No matter how strange it, the sun rises every day, isn't it? There is still a league on the weekend, and that football is still hard. Your salary will not have wonderful growth because of uncertainty. The opportunity for the exam will still get a credit is still not. You have become a probability wave directly through the wall and walk outside, how to say it, not completely impossible, but the opportunity is so low, so you have the best of the Henghe Sand, rounded back to hundreds of millions, the universe Overhain, Nirvana has countless return, or it is rare to see this scene. It's true, the electron is a ghost, let it go. As long as the world we can see is real, this will not add too many troubles to add optimism. But Xue Qinger didn't think so, if the world is based on the ghost, who said that the world itself is not a ghost? This kind of trick played in the sea is don't want to escape his eyes. When EPR was introduced, Schrödinger was happy, praised Iinstein "to grab the small scorpion of the quantum theory." He is inspired, he also published a papers in 1935, entitled "Quantum Mechanics Status" (Die " Gegenwartige Situation in der quantenmechanik, the tone in the article is ironic. All in all, it is not two-way with Copenhagen. In Section 5 of the paper, Schrödinger describes the cat experiment that is often regarded as a nightmare. Ok, Copenhagen said that before the measurement, a particle is blurred, and it is in a mix of various possibilities. Is it? For example, when a radioactive atom, it is completely probable. As long as it is not observed, it is in the superposed state of decay / non-decreasing, and it is only true to measure a state. It's so very, let us put this atom in an opaque box to keep it this superimposed state. Now Schrödinger imagines a smartly precision device, which releases a neutron whenever atomic decay, which inspires a series of chain reactions, the end result is a poisonous gas bottle in the box, and there is a poor in the box. s cat. Things are obvious: If the atoms have fallen, the poisonous cylinder is broken, the cat is poisoned. If the atom does not decline, then the cat is well alive. Natural Inference: When they are locked in the box, because we have no observation, the atom is in the superimposed state of decay / non-decay. Because the state of the atom is uncertain, the state of the cat is not sure, only when we open the box, things will finally finalize: or the cat is lying in the box, or it is alive, "呜" . The problem is that when we didn't open the box, what state is this cat? It seems that it may be that it is in the superimposed state as the atom, which is trapped in a dead / live mix. It is not light whether it is a ghost, and now the cat has become a ghost. A cat is also dead again and is alive? It is in a superimposed state of unscrupulous? This has not been avoided and common sense is too conflict, and at the same time is also a grateful talk. If you open a living cat, then if it can talk, will it describe the singularity of the dead / activity? I am afraid I am not too likely. Schrödinger's experiment enlarges the quantum effect to our daily world. Now the quantum of strange nature involves our daily life, involving our beloved pet cats are dead or life problems. Although this experiment is simple, it is much more spicy than EPR, this time the Copenhagen is painful.

They had to take a step by step to swear this cup of bitter wine: Yes, when we didn't observe, the cat was indeed dead and live. Not just a cat, everything, when we don't observe, it is in an uncertain superimposed state, because everything in the world is composed of an atom who obeys uncertain principles, so everything can be safe. The quantum sent a very wide argument: "When we don't observe, the moon does not exist." This is slightly deviated, accurately, because the moon is also made up of uncertain particles, so if we turn to the moon, the big pile of particles will start according to the wave function. So, the edge of the moon began to be blurred and uncertain, it gradually "melted", turned into a probability wave spread to the surrounding space. Of course, such a large moon fully melted into space is taken for a long time, but the essence of the problem is that if the moon is not observed, it becomes a numerous uncertain superposition from the determined state. When it is not observed, a certain, objective moon does not exist. But as long as it turns back, a bright moon is high in a high suspension, and it seems that something has never happened. It can't be recognized, which sounds a strong taste of strong subjective idealism. Although it is actually a certain difference with the philosophical theory that we usually understand, it is said that many people will naturally remember the famous sayings of George Berkeley: "Existence is perceived" (Latin: Esse EST Percipi. If this sentence is slightly changed, it is "existently being measured", then the meaning of Copenhagen is not never left. Becklai's status in the history of philosophy is undoubtedly important, but people are often coming to criticize him, is our Copenhagen to go farther than him? Well, Becklai, I also think that things are in a row, because there is always a "God" to look at everything. Quantum theory? "Your Majesty, I don't need God's hypothesis." The Oriental Representative of Becklaie is probably a matter of probably Wang Yangming. He also said a famous words in the "Issue," I didn't see this flower, this flower is in the same time; when you come to see this flower, this flower color understands ... "If Wang Yang Ming understands quantum He will say: "When you have not observed this flower, this flower does not have a real existence. When you are in the wave function; when you observe this flower, this flowering function has collapsed, its color is turned to understand ... ... "The measurement is reasonable, and the measurement is unreasonable. Of course, we have no intention to turn this historical call into purely bored philosophical discussion. Experience often shows that this kind of void will eventually become meaningless, let people sleepy chicken ribs. We still returned to specific questions. When we don't want to observe the situation in the box, the cat is really "live and die"? This is indeed a problem that is embarrassed and unimaginable. Hawko once said: "When I heard Schrödinger's cat, I ran to take the gun." Schrödinger described it into a "demonic device" (Diabolische, English Diabolical, play Diablo Probably better understanding it). We have already seen the quasiology of the quantum that is amazing and even tongue, but it is just a micro-world that we don't have much interest in understanding, but now it is now to begin to affect everything around us? A person may accept the fact that the electronic is in a stacked state, but once the macro thing is discussed, for example, our cat is also in a "superposed" state, everyone must feel a little happening.

However, for this issue, we have now known a lot, especially in the past ten years, have many outstanding experiments to confirm that some of its strange nature. But we still press the pace of our history, step by step to explore this interesting topic, or explain from Copenhagen. The cat is in a dead / live superimposed state? People can't accept this, the most critical place is that experience tells us that this strange dual state seems unlikely to be a macro, such as a cat or we own, and feel. Still, if the cat can talk, will it describe this binaby style? If it is lucky, it will not say: "Yes, I turned into a probability wave, I feel that I am filled in the space, half of it is dead, and the other half is still alive. This is really floating. I feel that you will try it? "This is afraid that no one believes. Ok, let's take a step, the cat will not talk, then we put a talking person in the box. Of course, this sounds a bit cruel, it seems to be a Nazi's gas concentration camp, but we just do it in imagination. If this person can survive, do he say that? Obviously, he is definitely unfair to claim that he lives well from the end, and there is no half-life state. However, this is different, because he is already an observer! He constantly observed his state in the box, so he kept taking his wave function to collapse, we put a observer into the box! However, weird, why do we say this to the cat? Cats are also kept at you. What is the difference between cats and people? Is there a discussion of an anti-stuttering quantity in anger, one can only be "喵"? What is surprisingly surprised is that this is certain that it is vital! People can feel their survival, and the cats can't, in other words, people have the ability to "measure" if they live, and the cat can't! People have something that cats don't have, that is, "consciousness"! Therefore, people can measure their waves to collapse, and the cat is inseparable, and can only stay in the wave function of dead / mapping. awareness! This word appears in physics is really unimaginable. If it still comes from a Nobel's physics award winner, is it dizzy? Don't this this world have changed? Half dead "Schrödinger's Cat" is one of the famous weird images in the history of the scientific history. It may have a turtle that will never catch up with it in the same name of the celebrities. Thus, all of the old wise people, Maxwell's Ministry controls the entrance, so that the fast-slow molecules gradually separated, the system entropy is the fairy of the rising, and the head is getting fainted, and who is the brother who is the pair of my brother. Who is the pair of my brother? Double born, etc., etc. Schrödinger's cat is also very popular among the public, often appearing in script, comics and music, although it is a bit more popular than compatriots Garfield or Tom. Interestingly, it often uses "Pavlov's dog" as a partner one and appears. Its the longest face is probably being "Tears For Fear", this is a song in the 1980s as a song of a song, although the lyrics are "Schrödinger's cat died in this world".

******** After the meal, gossip: Heisenberg and the German Atomic Bomb Program (5) "Copenhagen" played in the London Royal Theater on May 21, 1998, then entered French and Broadway, causing a sensation It contains a series of awards including the British Standard Evening Award (EVENING Standard, France Morrows Awards and the US Dairy Award. The script describes Boir and Mrs. Margaret, as well as Hesenburg three people reunited in a certain time and space, constantly focusing on the dust, pursuing the presence of the presence of 1941. The disorder of time and space, from all angles to the birth, but the demonstration, but also the context of the dialogue, plastic to the very bit of cloth, and shaped the atmosphere to be fascinating, such as dreams, from the perspective of the drama, get praise Such as tide. Later, PBS was adapted to a TV drama broadcast, and success was huge. But the fate of Thomas PowerS "Heisenberg's War" is a big phase. Even before the "brother" drama, it began to be criticized by many historians, once in a variety of academic journals, almost. Because the study of FARM HALL TRANSCRIPT will soon indicate that the fact is not the same as Powers. Hesenburg's main biography author Cassidy said in the book review written for Nature Magazine: "... The author is too superficial in the study, and the treatment of materials is too biased, so that his careful argument is not Credit. (Nature V363) "and Science magazine comments say:" This book is like the critical quality of uranium, it needs to be taken particularly carefully. (Science V259) "The University of New York University in" American Historical Comments " The magazine said: "This book) is more suitable for a novel, not an academic book." He stattered in the British and American commentator, about 3/5 people did not believe in Powers, 1/5 people It is believed that he is not so persuasive, only 1/5 tends to endorse his statement. In the book "Heisenberg and Nazi Atomic Bomb Plan" published in 1998, historian Paul Rose was approximately indignant, and many of the counseling words raised in scholars were used to evaluate this book of Powers, such as "completely Entirely Bogus, "Fantasy", "Scholarly Disaster", "bloated Elephantine" ... etc. OK, no matter what people say, we still go back Everything that Hessian is declining. First, it is very clear that his extremely conceited in German physics, this attitude is so obvious, so that a German professor commentary said: "I really I can't believe that they can have such arrogant attitudes. "Heisenberg is about death and refuses to admit that the Germans are in theory" skills are not as good as people ". He said that the progress of both parties in 1942 is also" basically quite ", this itself is very strange. Allies have been in 1942. The manufacturing of the original bullet has a very clear concept. They clearly know the correct critical quality parameters. They have done a lot of experiments to get full related data. In December 1942, Fermi has been in the University of Chicago. The world has built the world's first controlled reactor, and Germany is only limited in this area until the end of the war is only a limited progress in this area. Once the things are available, the Manhattan is scheduled to start, and the entire project will be held smoothly on the entire project. Germany does not have this ability. This pride of Heisenberg is obvious. Of course, this is not a bad thing, but it seems to make us better try his psychology. When Hiroshima news, everyone is falling Shock.

Harn who hasn't worried about Hesenburg: "You are just a second-run figure, it is better to cover home." And ... I said twice before and after. If Hesensburg can tolerate "two streams", it is not Hessenburg. As early as 1938, Heisenberg was referred to by the Party Sanjun newspaper because he would not abandon the so-called "Jewish Physics" and he was called "white Jewish". He immediately found Ximlai to clarify, and even did it. Preparation. Heisenberg said to Sony: "You know that it is a painful thing to leave Germany. It is not that I have to do this. However, I am not interested in being a second-class citizen here." Heisenberg Personal honor is still very valuable. However, the first-class Hessoroburg has made a last flow in the calculation, and even incorrect mistakes, directly leading to the exaggeration estimate of Germany's critical quality. This low-level mistake is really surprising. I can't understand why, maybe, some accidental events really change history?

Chapter IX Measurement Problem One We have already met von. John Von Neumann in Como, one of the founders of this modern computer, the most outstanding mathematician in the 20th century. Regarding his kind of legend in the scientific community is like a long-lasting legendary story, it has passed more and more popular: say he is 6 years old, you can count the 8-digit multiplication, 8 years old, know how to concentrate, 12 I have been proficient in the functions, and some people say that he is not forgotten, especially the history, some people give a variety of incredible examples to explain how his heart accounting is amazing. Some people say that he is 10 years old, and can use each kind of finishing poem, which has become 7 in other people. No matter what, everyone admits that this guy is a hundred years of rare genius. To listen to his outstanding achievements to spend a lot of time: from a collection of mathematics basic research; from the operator to the traversal theory, from the game theory to numerical analysis, from computer structure to automatinal theory, each You can book a book. However, we are only paying attention to his contribution to the quantum, and this is also enough to have a place in our history. We have already said in the previous year, Dirac published a famous "quantum mechanics principle" textbook in 1930, completed the general integration of quantum mechanics. But from pure mathematics, quantum theory still lacks a common strict basis, which is made up of Vonnieman. In 1926, he came to Göttingen and served as a famous Hilbert's assistant. They added Novoten to the "quantum mechanics foundation" paper, introduced Hilbert's operator theory In the quantum, this physical system is rigorously from mathematics. In 1932, Fengnieman has developed this work and published a "mathematical basis for" quantum mechanics ". This book launched in 1955 by Princeton, which is still a classic textbook. We have no intention to go deep into mathematics, but Fengnouman proves several interesting conclusions, especially about our measurement behavior, which deeply affects the view of a generation of physicists to collapse. We also plagued our measurement problem in the previous chapter. Memory: Whenever we obstacles, the system wave function has collapsed, and a practical result is jumped out by probability. If it is not observed, it will be strictly developed according to equations. . This is two very different processes, the latter is continuous, in the math, it is completely determined, but the former is a "collapsed", it is random, it is not reversible, and it is not clear what the inner mechanism is. How is the two processes conversion? What is the violent change in the wave function? Is it "observation"? However, when we talk about it, the language used is daily, embarrassing, and ambiguous. We have been based on the use of "observations", but we did not give it the next precise definition. What kind of behavior is a "observation"? If you say that you open your eyes, it is observed, so close your eyes with your hand? Use a stick to go? Use instrument record? If people can be "observer", then? What about a computer? How is a cover leather counter? Vonnieman pointed out that those instruments we used to measure the target itself are also composed of uncertain particles, and they also have their own wave functions. When we use the instrument to "observe", this will only be involved in the middle of this blurry stack. How do you say, if we want to measure an electronics through the left or the right slit, we use an instrument to measure, and report this result with the direction of the pointer swing.

However, it is a crying that this instrument itself has its own wave function. If we don't "observe" this instrument itself, its wave function is also in a blurry superimposed state! Nogan's mathematical model shows that when the instrument is measured, the electronic wave function has collapsed, but the left / right superposition is only transferred to the instrument. Now is our instrument in a pointer to the left or right superposition state! If we use the instrument B to measure the instrument A, good, now A's wave function has collapsed, it turns into determine, but B is in a blurred ... in turn, when we use the instrument to measure the instrument, The last instrument of this whole chain is always in an uncertain state, called "Infinite Regression". From another perspective, if we add the instruments used to measurements to the entire system, the wave function of this large system has never been completely collapsed! However, we are quite sure that when we add the results of the instrument report, this process is over. We will not be in the absurd superimposed state. When our brain accepted the measured information, Game over, the wave function is no longer chaos. Does it say that the reference of the consciousness is the reason why the wave function is collapsed? Only when electron random selection is "realized", it really turns into reality, from the wave function to take off the world. As long as it has not been "realized", the wave function always stays in an uncertain state, but only the last measurement instrument will be transferred from one place. In Nobieman, the wave function can be seen as a vector in the Hilbert space, and "collapsed" is a projection in some direction. However, what is this projection? Is it our freedom? In other words, because a instrument cannot "awareness" to his pointer to the left or point to the right, it must fall into the left / right mix state. A cat can't "conscious" to himself is alive or dead, so it can be trapped in a mixed state of death / live. However, you can "conscious" to the electron is left or right, we are born or die, so we have arrived here, and the wave function is finally completely collapsed. The world has finally become a reality, so as not to give us confusion. Crazy? Ignore? A gap? incredible? Perhaps everyone has this shocking feel. Natural science, the most proud noble, the legislator of the universe, the unbelievan of the nature, this is always the most objective, the most strict, the most meticulous, the most unable to tolerate the subjective conscious judge, now actually To put human awareness, or change the word, soul, put it in the center of the universe! Copernico is expelled from the center of the universe, and now they will change their faces. This is enough to make every scientist creepy. No, this is a nonsense, saying that the person here is definitely crazy, or if it is a physical idiot. Physics needs "awareness"? This is the biggest joke in this century! But, and slow, people who say this may be much smart than you, maybe, or a Nobel physics award winner? Eugene Wigner was born in Hungary Budapest on November 17, 1902. He met Feng Noiman when he studied in a Luthel Church. The latter is his school. The two are more good at mathematics, one more good at physics, is a fairly complementary combination for a long time.

Vigner is one of the most important physicists in the 20th century. He applies group theory to quantum mechanics, and has a crucial role in the establishment of an atomic nuclear model. He became the founder of Quantum Field Theory with Dirak, Jorsia and others. By the way, his sister married Dirac, thus became the latter. He participated in the Manhattan program, which has a prominent contribution in nuclear reactory theory. In 1963, he was awarded Nobel Physics Bonus. For observations in quantum theory, Verner's opinions are: awareness undoubtedly acts as an important role in touch wave functions. When people still argue for Schrödinger's unlucky cat, Vigner came out to smash a bigger honeycomb, which is the so-called "Vigner's friend". "Vigner's friend" is an acquaintance he thinks (I guess its prototype is not Dirac!), When Schrödinger's cat is silently waiting for the decision of fate silently in the box, A gas mask also stayed in the box to observe the cat. Vigna himself retreats to the room without any observation box. Now, for Vigna, he didn't know anything about the situation in the room. Can he be assumed to be in a box (a friendly friend) mixture of And (dead cat sad friend)? However, when he asked the friend after an event, the latter will definitely deny this superimposed state. Virga's summary, when a friend's consciousness is included in the entire system, the superimposed state is not applicable. Even if he himself is outside the door, the wave function in the box is constantly touched because of a friend's observation, so there is only two pure pots of live cats or dead cats. Vim Na said that the awareness can act on the external world, so that the wave function has collapsed is not surprising. Because the changes in the external world can cause our awareness, according to Newton's third law, the role and anti-action principle, the awareness should also be able to play against the external world. He is named "Remarks on The Mind-Body Question" collected in his 1967 papers. Is the quantum theory? Is it "consciousness", this kind of virtuality is really going to occupy the sacred physical field and become a core of our theory? People always exclude this "horror" idea, Ke Wenni, and Hayfield (Roger Highfield) written a book called "Time Dram", Go to Vigna's claim. However, in the Chinese version of this book, the translator specially added a "reader to hold", saying that this kind of conscious interpretation is "intensified the surcharge", it claims that observation can be made by a set of measurement instruments, so it is "Completely objective". But this statement is clearly not standing, because the instrument only adds a link to Fengnieman's infinite retreatment, does not observe the instrument, it is still in the superimposed wave function. What is the problem is, what exactly is "awareness"? The problem brings more than our wave function itself, it is a strategy that is not worthless. Is aware of substances? Is it obedient from physical law? Can a consciousness be existing in a low animal? Can I exist in the machine? More puzzles are like tidal surges to swallow the helplessness, this taste is not better than what is better than the wave function. In fact, only the philosophers who have nothing to do will receive this problem, and the real brain scientists and neuroscientists often dissemble or indifferent.

When awareness problem is pulled into the explanation of quantum, many of the introduction of physical books have a cross-sectional view of the brain. Nonely, explain the various partitions of the skin, the connection of neural knots, hippocampal ... This is inde fun Scenery! Next, we are better to do a few simple discussions on this awareness, but we don't want to spend too much time on this, because our history will continue to advance, there are still some novel things waiting for us. The final statement on this section is that it is just a possible statement about "consciousness to external world". This does not mean that all kinds of so-called "specific functions", "heart-sensitive", "ideal shift", "long-distance curved spoon", etc. have theoretical foundation. For these things, everyone is best to adhere to the principle of "special exotic statements require special strong evidence support", requiring strict, repeatable double-blind experiments for each example. As far as I know, there is no specific function example through a similar inspection. ******** After the meal, gossip: Heisenberg and the German atomic bomb program (6) calculate the size of critical quality is a statistical issue. In order to ensure that there is sufficient uranium 235 molecules before the chain reaction is stopped, it should ensure that 2 ^ 80 molecules (approximately 1 mole) have reacted, which is to maintain 80 splits. . How big is this range? This is equivalent to asking, a person (molecule) will stay in how big the radius after randomly forward and returned to 80 times. This is a very famous "drunk ghost road" problem. If you read Gaimov's old science book "from one to endless", maybe you will also impress it. Heisenberg has calculated a distance: 54 cm, which is equivalent to 13 tons of uranium 235, and at the time, there is more unimaginable. However, 54 cm This number is a limit, that is, the uranium 235 of 54 cm radius is required in the worst case. In fact, many specific situations such as neutron absorption are ignored, or can cause chain reactions in less than much circumstances, and all kinds of Hesenburg is too "smart" and ignored important restrictions. . Heisenberg excessively simplifies a quite complex problem, as can be seen from his calculations, he lacks a thorough understanding of the fast neutron, which causes him to treat a few tons of uranium 235 as a report in the report. The lower limit is the quality of "minimum needs", and until the Hiroshima atomic bomb explosion, this view (he doesn't know, Pelles has made the right result in 1939!). Such a mistake, don't say it is a first-class physicist such a Heisenberg, even if it is an ordinary physics, college students should not be committed. And there is no one to refute his results! This is not exempting some people think about it, thinking that Hesenburg "Special" can make such a mistake to deceive the head to prevent the manufacture of the original bullet. Unfortunately, from everything, Heisenberg himself is convinced. On August 6, 1945, the German scientists who were imprisoned in Farm Hall were inform in Hiroshima, and all shocks were shocked. Hesen, I said: "I don't believe in this original bullet. Of course I may be wrong. I thought they had 10 tons of uranium, but did not expect them to have 10 tons of pure uranium 235 "Heisenberg still thought that a nuclear bomb was a few tons of uranium 235. Harn was shocked about this comment because he thought that as long as there were very few uranium, it could make a bomb (this is what hesensibao said before, but that means a "reactor bomb", that is, the reactor is unstable and turned into unstable Explosive, Hun is obviously wrong).

Heisenberg corrected this view, and then guess the allies might find a way to effectively separated the isotope (he still thought that so many uranium 235 was separated, not his own estimate!). At 9 o'clock, everyone listened to the BBC news, and then launched a warm discussion. Although Hesenburg made some correct analysis, it proposed the "54 cm" estimate. The next day, everyone began to draft memos. On the third day, Heisenberg and Woz discussed the possibility of thorium bombs. Heisenberg felt that the plumon may be more easily divided than imagining (he learned that the atomic bomb was not big), but he did not have data because Germany did not react to produce thorium. Until at this time, Heisenberg still thought that the quality of the uranium needs a few tons of quality. __________________

Second consciousness to collapse the wave function? What is it? This is one of the most questions that are discussed by philosophers, but the reactions in the scientific community are relatively cold. In the psychiatrics, the behavioiscies represented by John B.Watson and Skinner, etc., is often be happy to study mental events into stimulation and reactions, and ignore unable to use experimental confirmation. Awareness. Indeed, even the next accurate definition of "awareness", where it is, which part of the specific activity, how to act on our body or unknown mystery. People can generally reach a consensus, not all activities of the brain are "consciousness", in fact, many activities in the brain are unable to conscious, we usually only notice its output results, but do not participate in it run The whole process. When my ear sounds "Ninth Symphony", my eyes suddenly couldn't help but I have a childhood time in the middle school era, but I don't know how my brain has completed this process. This is done in my "under consciousness"! Sometimes I even surprised: Why do I think so? In addition, many people also admit that "consciousness" seems to be closely related to our "attention", which also requires certain memory capabilities to complete the front and rear coherent movements. It is certain that awareness is not a specific substance. No one has found any tangible "consciousness" in the skull during brain surgery. Is it a part of the brain? It should be like this, but which part is responsible for "consciousness" is a lot. Some people say that it is a brain, because the brain has all kinds of complex communication functions, and the brain that masters the body's control is more like an automated machine. When we study swim or cycling, we always have to fight, pay attention to the control of every posture of your body, you have to think about it. But once you are skilled, your mind takes over the body's movement, turning it into an instinctive behavior. For example, people who ride a bicycle do not need to "conscious" to each action when they need. In fact, our "consciousness" is quite slow (there is an experimental report says half-second delay), when a pianist is performing skilled performance, he often "does not think", it is a good one, from a certain angle Said, this is no longer called "completely conscious" behavior, just like we usually say: "Mechanically, I don't want to think." And it is worth noting that the physical skills of this latter study can often be kept for a long time. Some people say that the brain doesn't conscious, but only commands the body's actions. In an experiment, we stimulate a certain area of ​​the brain so that the trial's right hand, but the testor itself "doesn't want to" make it move! So, when we want to move our right hand, we must have this desire to create this desire to be generated by the consciousness, and then convey the electrical signal to a specific skin layer, and finally lead to the sports itself. The experimenter believes that the brain and thalamus are this free consciousness. But there are also others think that it is a mesh, or a hippocampus. Many people also believe that the brain left hemisphere can be called "conscious", and the right hemisphere is automaton. These specific debates are placed on one side, and we will see the problem at a higher level: What is the consciousness? It is not a mysterious neighborhood ghost, existed completely from our body brain, only when it "attached" is on us, can we get this kind of consciousness? Obviously the vast majority of scientists will not agree with this statement, a sense of heart, a sense of consciousness is a structural mode, which is completely based on the material foundation (our brain), but it needs a higher level. Law to explain it.

This is the so-called "holism" explanation. What is awareness? This is a better question: What is information? A message is a message, but its carrier itself is not information, the content it contains is. I tell you: "The Lakers will lose the ball today", this 8 words itself is not information, its content "Lakers lost" is real information. The same information can be expressed in an additional carrier, such as writing a line tells you, or sending an e-mail to you, or make a gesture. Therefore, the research carrier itself does not have the conclusion of the relevant information, even if I cut these 8 words into a one-drawn research, this is not helpful to understand the meaning of the "Lake People's Pass". The information does not exist in each word, and in the combination of these 8 words, for its description, it is necessary to use a higher level of language and regularity than a single word. What is Beethoven's "Ninth Symphony"? It is not a combination of a string notes. But the note itself is not a symphony. If we want to describe this great work, we have to involve the "combination mode" of the note! What is Hemingway's "Old Man and Sea"? It is nothing more than a combination of letters. But the letter itself is not a novel, and their "combination mode" is! In order to better understand the letters, the combination model is the concept of the novel. We assume that the simpler coding method is used to encrypt the "Old Man and the Sea", which is to replace each letter with the corresponding symbol. For example, a changed to a circle, B is changed to square, and C is changed to triangle ... and so on. Now we have a book full of weird symbols, I ask you: Is this "old man and the sea"? Most people should admit: or. Because the information of the original book does not have any losses, its "combination mode" is still retained there, but only has an expression mode on the basics, it can be repeatedly compiled again. This password version "The old man and the sea" is completely equivalent to the original "old man and the sea"! Back to our question: What is aware? Consciousness is a "combination mode" of the atomic group that makes into the brain! The material foundation of our brain and a stone have no difference, which is made up of the same carbon atom, hydrogen atom, oxygen atom ... The electronics constituting our brain and constitutes a stone's electronics exactly the same, even if they exchange them, they will not cause our head to become a stone. Our consciousness, full building above our head structure model! As long as a bunch of atoms are arranged in a specific way, it can constitute our awareness, just like a bunch of letters arranged in a specific way, they can constitute "old people and sea". It doesn't need a non-substance "soul" to attach the attachment. If you won't believe it, only when "Hemingway's Soul" will make it "old man with the sea" on a bunch of letters. Single brain cells are clearly unable to realize anything, but many brain cells are combined in accordance with specific patterns, "awareness" is produced in combination. Ok, until this, most people should still be satisfied with this considerable material. But as long as you look forward to a few steps, many people may feel that they are cold sweat. If "awareness" is completely dependent on the "combined mode" of the atom, the first inference is: it can be copied.

Publishing House printing thousands of "old people and sea", why can't my atom cannot be copied? If our technique is developed to a certain extent, you can scan your position and status of each atom in your body, and then recombine them in another place, this new "person" is you? Will he have the same "consciousness" as you? Or simply say, is he and you are the same person? If we recognize awareness based on atomic arrangement mode, our answer is undoubtedly yes! This and "Clone" are two concepts, and the clone only inherits your gene, and this "copy person" has your consciousness, your memory, your feelings, everything, he is you! In recent years, we have a great breakthrough in quantum communications. It has become possible to transmit an unknown quantum state into the second person, and in fact there have been many specific protocols. Although gratifying is that there is a principle called "No CLON CLONING THEOREM, 1982 Wootters, Zurek and Dieks) stipulates that it will ruin the original original while transmitting quantum states. In other words, the quantum state can only be Cut Paste, can't copy Paste, which prevents the appearance of two "you". But the problem is, if you "ruin", then "rebuild" in another place, do you think this is still "original you"? Another inference is: "Combination Mode" itself is not to be a specific substance foundation. We have seen that we can use another set of symbol systems to rewrite "old people and sea", which does not cause substantial differences. A set of movies, I can record with film, or recorded by tape, VCD, LD, or DVD. Of course, someone will make an objection, say that the compression actually causes the loss of information, and the VCD version of Matrix is ​​no longer the MATRIX of the movie version. In fact, we don't matter, a metaphor, a color digital photo can be used to express color, or you can Other expressions systems are used, for example, CMY, HSI, YUV or YIQ. For example, any sequence can be compressed with some reversible compression techniques such as Huffman encoding, and the letter can also be replaced with a Morse code. The song can be recorded by a score or five-wire spectrum, although they look very different, but the information contained therein Are the same! If you are interested, use the white bonus in Go 0, and the black child represents 1, you can also copy a VCD with Go to the entire Tiananmen Square, which is complete equivalent! So, as long as there is a complex system that can contain the main information of our "consciousness" or equivalent, it is clear that we should think that consciousness does not have to rely on our creatures with the body's flesh! Suppose all the information of our brain is scanned into a computer. This computer strictly calculates these molecules for a variety of stimulus, in accordance with physical law, and finally finds the corresponding results to respond, then in theory This computer is completely equivalent to us itself! Can we say that this computer actually has our "consciousness"? For many empirists, it is determined that the "consciousness" or "can think" is strictly in accordance with this Mode Structure Theory. Consciousness is just a complicated mode structure, or, is a complex algorithm for input and output. Any system can simulate this algorithm, it can be reasonably considered to have awareness.

And von. Novan is the same as the modern computer, Alan Turin proposes to determine whether the computer can actually "think" in the actual "Thinking" of the computer, which is the famous "Tuling Test". . He imagines that a supercomputer and a person hide behind the scene to answer questions, and the questioner tries which one is a computer. The map spirit argued that if the computer camouflage is so clever, no one can distinguish it and a real person to distinguish it, then we can claim that this computer has a thinking ability, or a consciousness (His original word is "wisdom"). Modern computer can be defeated by the Chess Master (Poor Casparov!), And truly defrauding a tester, I don't know how long it can come, everyone is estimated to be good. Computers can actually have a sense of consciousness after complex to some extent, and people who hold this view are often referred to as "strong manual intelligence". In their view, the human brain is essentially an abnormal complicated computer, but it is not composed of transistors or integrated circuits, but biological cells. However, the cells have to rely on subtle currents, even if we are not fully clear, there is no reason to think that there is a kind of natural things inside. Just like Schrödinger, like a metaphor of the book "life of the four seas" life, a steam engineer is surprised to find this machine and the thermodynamics of the thermodynamics he knows very different. But he will reasonably assume that this is running in accordance with the principle he doesn't understand, but will not be very surprised to think that the ghost drove everything. You may have to ask, what extent is the exquisite algorithm to "awareness"? This is indeed a practical benefit to us to understand the wave function! But this is likely to be a problem, like the famous paradox: a sand heap is not counted, two sands are not counted, but 100,000 sands are definitely a pile of sand. So, when can I get a sand heap when you are in the sandy land? For this fuzzy problem, scientists usually disdain, just as there is a consciousness of the cat or E. coli, we are still a foggy water! Of course, there are also some more extreme views that any system that performs some algorithm can be seen as a "conscious"! For example, there is a compass, people will argue that it "likes" to point to the south, when it makes it chaos, it is trying to avoid this state in "disgust", and return to the state of it "like". From this point of view of this kind of pan God, all things have "consciousness", but the degree is different. Consciousness, simply, is a system algorithm, "likes" those big probability output, "annoying" those small probability outputs. A variant with a shot is also conscious, but it "consciousness" complexity is much better than our human beings. You may not believe this statement, but you only have to admit "consciousness" just a kind of arrangement in the material, you can't deny that some of the strange nature we said. Even "Whether it may continue to exist after death", our answer should be in principle! This is a good question, "Ninth Symphony" is still there after the concert? Obviously, we only need to keep this information about this arrangement, we can use different ways to reapperate it (no lack of carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms at any time). Of course, in our technical capabilities, we will not meet all combined information and keep them (may we never don't have this technology). After people die, they naturally have no sense, just like concerts, burned all the scores. This song naturally "lost".

You may have already seen a tongue, but our statement is based on complete objective and material material, it is already the most unimomes! Awareness is not an independent existence, but the system is complicated to some extent. Although it is a combination mechanism, it is unique to the specific substance (the temporary body is likely) it cannot be manifested. As software is unable to operate, it is impossible to disengage substances like software. If we are forced to find a "consciousness" independent of the material, then it is too far away. Of course, for the public that is used to binaryism, trying to make them believe that the soul or conscious is just a large number of nervous arrangements and collective behavior is to teach them surprised. For thorough materialism, trying to make them believe that as a particular arrangement information may have long preserved and reproduce on different platforms is also a difficult task. Francis cricks have to be called "amazing hypothesis" (see "The Scientific Exploration of the Soul"). But for most scientists, this may be a matter of course. Of course, some people think that consciousness or soul is an objective by-product that is not complex, it does not necessarily use algorithms to simulate and have certain active effects! This is included in the University of Oxford, Roger Penrose, if you are interested in understanding his point of view, you can read its work "The Emperor's New Mind). ********* This section is too long, and I put the last part of the gossip of Heisenberg to the next section. Many people say that this gossip is a bit of a little, I agree very much. In fact, this is a content I have always wanted for a long time, but I have completed the history of the history of the history, so it is a bit not annoying, the style and the body have some access. When I was revised in the future, I would independently, and it is handled as an external article.

Three we have got a lap in the "consciousness problem", what is the harvest? When will we figure out when the quantum state is generated? How do we find out how the consciousness acts on the wave function? It seems that there is no, but it is more doubt: We can already assume that a sufficiently complex computer has the ability to collapse the wave function? Instead, we feel confused, it seems that this is a dead road that is unlike. The electronic wave function is the physics law in the most basic level, as we have already discussed, the rules followed by "awareness" are a large number of atomic combinations that may reflect the overall effect, it is likely It is at a very high level. Just like you can't use the grammar rules that handle words and sentences, use wave functions and consciousness to contact each other, it seems to be a chaotic level, so that some people try to use Newton's law to explain the economic rules. If "awareness" makes everything from the quantum stack, becomes a real reality, then we can't help but ask a natural problem: When the intelligent creature has not evolved, this universe has not "consciousness", its What is the status? Don't you say that the first conscious creature has made a reality in the universe of the universe from the creation of the moment? Do you say "intelligence" to change the past at that moment, and this "past" even contains its own evolution history? In 1979, it was 100th anniversary of Einstein, and Princeton, who worked in his life, held a commemoration of his discussion. At the meeting, Einstein's colleagues, is also a close partner of Boir, John Wheeler proposes a quite surprising, which is the so-called "delayed experiment" (Delayed Choice Experiment) . In the previous chapter, we have been very familiar with the double sewing interference of the electronics. The interference pattern is eliminated by one sewing. Huiller pointed out through a dramatic thinking, we can "delay" this decision that makes it after the double seam screen has actually passed the double seam screen, and there is two! The basic idea of ​​this experiment is to replace double seams with semi-silver-plated mirrors. Half of a photon may pass through the mirror, half may be reflected, this is a quantum random process, which is the same as it chooses double seams or single seams. Put the mirror and photon incident pathway 45 degree angle, then half of it may be flying, the other half may be reflected into a 90 degree angle. However, we can make the two separate roads together with each other. Observe the direction of the flying in the end, can we determine which road is flying along which road. However, we can also insert a half-plated mirror in a 45-degree angle at the end, which will also cause the photon's self-interference. If we carefully arrange the phase, we can completely cancel each other in one direction, and output in a certain direction. In this way, we get a certain result each time (just like a specific interference stripe each time), according to the quantum, at this time, the photon must be along the two ways! All in all, if we don't insert a semi-mirror at the end, the photons come along a road, and vice versa.

The problem now is to insert the mirror at the end point, which can be determined when the photon actually passes the first mirror. We can decide what it should happen after things! If we are the director of this season, then our photons play a role in it, this can be decided by us after the movie is finished! Although I heard the weird, this is an orthodox in the Copenhagen. Huiller later said, "Any basic quantum phenomenon is only a phenomenon after it is recorded." We did decide before the photon was on the road, which is no different in quantum experiment. of. History is not certain and real - unless it has been recorded. More precisely, photons are "in the end" between the first lens to insert the second lens, what is a meaningless problem, we have no right to talk about it, it is not a "objective real"! Whele uses the famous "Dragon Map", the dragon's head and tail (input and output) are clear, but its body (path) is a fog, no one can say . After 5 years, the University of Maryland, Carroll O Alley, Maryland, and his colleagues did a delayed experiment. The result was really proved, when was the "mode" of the photon, This has no effect on the experimental results (like Boho prophecy, the opposite of Einstein!), With a group of Munich University, also made a similar result. What is this unimaginative thing? This shows that the history of the universe can be decided to happen after it actually happened! In Schrödinger's cat experiment, if we can also design some kind of delayed experiment, we can decide that the cat is dead after the experiment! For example, atoms are either decayed by a poisonous cat in 1 o'clock, or the cat is survived. However, if there is a delay device to make us "delayed decision" atomic decay in 2 o'clock, we can actually determine the cat in 1 o'clock in 2 o'clock! In this way, the universe itself is not impossible by a conscious observer. Although the behavior of the universe has evolved hundreds of millions of years, some "delay" makes it until it is observed by a senior organism. Our observational behavior itself participated in the creation of the universe! This is the so-called "The Prticle Universe" model. The universe itself does not have a certain answer, and the organisms participate in this puzzle answer itself! This is actually a "Anthropic Principle". The principle of chohating is to say, we have this fact itself, which determines why some of the nature of the universe is so instead of that. In other words, we discuss all the premise: in fact already there are some intelligent creatures such as our discussion. We recall the "first principle" of Cartesi: No matter what I doubt, I can't doubt, then "I am suspected" itself. "Cogito ergo sum"! Similar principles also apply to the principle of human choice: no matter what kind of nature this universe is good, it must make smart creatures may exist in it, or no one is asking "why is this?" This problem is. Just any problem, you must first guarantee that there is a "person" to ask questions, otherwise it is meaningless. For example, the current universe seems to be expanded at a "just right" speed.

As long as it expands slightly, the original material will fly away, and it cannot condense as a star and planet. Conversely, if a little slowly, gravitational will suck all the substances together, becoming a hodge with amazing density and temperature. And we are in a "critical speed", which makes the birth of various complex structures and life in the universe. What exactly is this speed to be accurate? About 10 ^ 55, what is this concept? You aim at one end of the universe and hit a flies in the other end (300 billion light year), the accuracy required is only 10 ^ 30. Similar to an amazing and accurate cosmic constant, we can also mention dozens. We ask: Why is the universe expanded in such a speed? The answer to the principle of people is: the universe must expand such a speed, otherwise there is no "you" to ask this question. Because it is only possible to expand, life and wisdom can be born in such a speed, thus making the problem possible! Obviously, someone will not ask: "Why is the universe expands at a speed of 1 m / sec?" Because the universe expanded in this speed is a fireball, there will be no one exists there. The participating universe is an enhanced human choice principle. It not only shows that our existence affects the nature of the universe, even more, our existence creates the universe and its historical itself! It can be imagined that the constants of all kinds of universe are first in an uncertain superposition, and only after the observer observes. But in this way, they must remain in some precise ranges to create a good environment, which makes observes may exist and observe them in the universe! This seems to be a logical loop: we have chosen the universe, the universe created us. This strange thing is called "self-finger" or "self-exciting", the existence of consciousness has created its own past! Please readers have confident that I have written here, I have been with you, and you will have a sound. This theory is almost exceeding the psychological limits we can withstand. We have exhausted in "consciousness" and will continue to advance. I feel unacceptable to this is not only our foreign guys. At that time, John Bell, we would soon talk about him), be muttered: "By hundreds of millions of years, the cosmic wave function has been In the appearance of a single cell life, then collapsed? Or too much for a while until there is a qualified, doctoral observer? "If Einstein is in the sky, see someone His birth commemorates like this weird, violates the model of fruit law, do not know what to do? Even if you explain itself from Copenhagen, "consciousness" seems too far. Most "mainstream" physicists are still careful to treat this problem and hold a more "orthodox" Copenhagen viewpoint. However, the so-called "orthodox concept" is actually an ostrich policy. It is actually throwing this problem while simply causing the wave function to collapse, and how to collapse it, why will it collapse? Do not ask. Quantum theory, as long as it is in practice, we are more concerned about some practical problems, rather than this kind of Xuanzhi's explanation! However, in any case, this undoubtedly aroused the enthusiasm and curiosity of many physicists when new physics touched such a physical issue that plashed the human millennium. It is indeed continuing to explore in the direction of Vigner and arguing awareness in the status of quantum discussion.

The representative of this is the American physicist Henry Stapp, Berkeley Lawrence National Laboratory, who published a book "Spirit, Material and Quantum Mechanics" since 1993 (Mind, Matter, And Quantum Mechanics After that, I have always debated other physics to this day (everyone can go to his website http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~stapp/stappfiles.html to see his article) . This kind of saying has also gained some people's support last year, that is, in 2003, there were people (Dick J. Bierman of Amsterdam University) claims that the experiment has demonstrated the human awareness "indeed" index ". However, the supporters of this faction have never been able to establish a persuasive model for "consciousness". For their claim, we are best to be slightly prudent under the situation of fear, see the future development How to say. We came along the path of Copenhagen, but perhaps, we have been able to walk, borrow, and found that there is a monster called "consciousness", let us be horrified. This is not the intention of Boir and Copenhagen, and we will return to the place where most people are standing, see if there is any other road to enter. Well, we found that there are still several small roads to unknown, let us try to change a few roads to walk, see if it will lead us to the bright Kangzhuang Avenue. However, let's take a good sign on the original road, write down the words "conscious monsters" and hit the exclamation mark to wake up. Ok, now we will go to another road adventure, this trail looks shrouded in a fog, and it seems to be split into an infinite bench. I seem to have less beautiful premonitions, but let us wipe the sweat, and go to see it before they are courageous. ********* After gossip: Heisenberg and German Atomic Bomb Program (7) Hesenburg have learned the actual weight of the bomb from News shortly: 200 kg, core explosives are only a few kilograms. He is irritated, and it is very tough to his estimate. He said to Hartk: "How did they do? If we have done the same job, I don't understand how they (theoretical) is doing, I feel very shameful." German A variety of possibilities have been discussed, but it has been decisive transformation until the 14th. From August 14, Heisenberg finally realized the correct calculation method (nor all), he made a teach in front of other scientists, and substantially relatively correct results. His conclusion is 6.2 cm radius - 16 kg! When he is teaching, other scientists don't know anything about this, and their questions are often naive. The Germans paid the final price for their pride. Further analysis of this matter can find a very detailed information on the "Hitler's Urani Atomic Bomb Program" (PAUL ROSE) and the 2000 Published "Hitler's uranium club" (Jeremy Bernstein) second book in 1998. In general, there have been fewer serious historians have objected to this matter in recent years, and this is the case in the English world. Regarding the meeting of Heisenberg and Bohr in Copenhagen in 1941, it is the scene explored in the "Copenhagen" play, we have also have breakthrough progress.

About this discussion is so warm, with the family of Zhiro 10 years (original confidential 50 years), which has been published in the 1941 meeting (we know, Bluo is almost never talked about these), for people to "misunderstand their content". These letters were published on February 6, 2002, published on the official website of Boir (http://www.nbi.dk), causing a wave of boom, making the daily click rate of this website rose from 50 to 15,000. / In these first disclosed letters, we can see the attitude of Boir to Hesenburg. The main one in these letters is prepared to send to Hesenburg after the new book of Robert Jungk, "More than one thousand sun is brighter", and we have said before, this book praised the Germans. Scientific ethics showing at the atomic bomb (based on the interview with Heisenberg I!). Bluo clearly said that he clearly remembers that he talks about the year, he and his wife Margaret have left a strong impression: Heisenberg and Weizak tried to persuade Bolide, the ultimate victory of Germany. Avoid, therefore takes an uncomfortant attitude is unbroken. Boir said that when Hesenburg talked about the atomic bomb plan, the only feeling left by him was to complete everything in the class in the leadership in Heisenberg. He emphasized that he kept silent, it was not a shocking because of the feasibility of the original bullets, but because Germany was committed to manufacturing the original bullet! Bolbur is obviously dissatisfied with the misleading of Heisenberg and Jungk's book. In other letters, he also mentioned that Heisenberg et al. Explained other Danish scientists that their attitude towards Germany is unmartted, because Germany's victory is very obvious. Bohl seems to have repeatedly talking to Hesen, in order to clarify the misunderstanding of this history, but in the end, his letters did not make it. It is necessary to think about three, or think of grace, let it go. These files can be found at http://www.nbi.dk/nba/papers/docs/cover.html. It is easy to understand, why have it been seen when Hessenburg and Weizak have seen Hessen and Weizak, saying that others said: "No matter how others say," these documents also support Hessonurg. Biographical author Cassidy's article in 2000 Physics Today magazine (this article is written for "Copenhagen" a drama). Cassidy believes that Hesensburg went to Copenhagen in this year, in order to persuade Bolgers, it is not the worst, it is not the worst thing (at least than the Soviet Union), and hopes that Boir uses his influence to convince a scientist who convinced allies. Of course, there is still a person who defends himself, the main representative is a student Klaus Gottstein, and Weizak, which is a peer, is still recognized, and it is Boir committed a "terrible memory error". Regardless of the facts, the true image of Heisenberg may be an ordinary person - unfair to be involved in the general Germans in the war years. He is not a hero, nor a villain, he is a great vision of Nazi, he may not help but have a helpless thing to do all the war years. Although historians have gradually reached an agreement, the scientific community is more compassionate to him. Sudarshan, University of Duck and Texas, said: "The great person is only 10% of the time ... Important is just that they have made original, very important, very important contribution ... so Haysen Fort in his second half is not an intention, it is not important to us. It is important that he created quantum mechanics. "In history, Heisenberg's image may always be the sunrise in Hullland. Is it physically brought by physics brought a big boy in dawn?

Four eating a meal, a long time, we summed up lessons. The reason why the forehead encounters "consciousness", the key is that we cannot define a "observer"! What is the difference between a person and a camera, everyone says that it is unclear, so I gave "consciousness". It is the "observer" that is "observer" to define what is the "observer". One observer collaps the wave function? This seems to give the so-called observer a kind of position in the universe, and they enjoy a privilege that transcends basic physical law, can create some truly wonderful things. Really, chasing this source, the culprit is in the "wave function collapsed". This seems like a curse of Copenhagen, still caught us in it without moving, and the future of physics seems to be bleak under its curse. Take the physicist of Cornell, Kurt Gottfried, this "collapsed" is like "a beautiful theory of ugly scars", it is clouded, it is like not , Ambiguous, everyone has their own opinions, noisy for this. How to define the boundaries between observes and non-observes? The wave function of Schrödinger cat has collapsed in the moment we open the box? Or is it to wait until the photon enters our eyes and strateches the electric pulse signal on the retina? Or it will wait for a while, until this signal is transmitted to the cerebral cortex and ultimately becomes a "spiritual activity" that is really collapsed? If we have a big rhodes in this, the future does not seem to be very wonderful. So, there is no way to bypass this so-called "collapsed" and "observer", kick your intelligent creature from physics, so that it will return to the track we are familiar with and love? Let us revisit the classic double seams: Electronics are the slits of the left, or on the right? According to Copenhagen, when we are not observed, its wave function presents two possible linear overlapping. Once observed, the peak function "collapses" appears while the wave function is "collapsed", and the left or right side is randomly selected. The randomness of the quantum world has been the best in collapse. To get rid of this dilemma, do not recognize the collapse, then only the acknowledgment wave function never "selection" left or right, it always remains in a linear superimposed state, no matter whether it is observed. However, this is clearly inconsistent with our actual experience, because never some people have observed the electronics of the left and right seams in the reality, and no one has seen the cat and live cat (half dead, dying There are many). Today, we are already riding a tiger, into the Valley, Copenhagen's curse has been entangled in us. If we don't get courage, make the most amazing assumption, we will be destined to sleep. If the wave function is not collapsed, it must keep linear overlapping. The electronic must be left / right superposition, but this phenomenon has never been observed in the real world. There is a kind of madness to relieve this awkward curse, although it is really crazy, but it is not shakes, we are already nothing to lot.

It's just awkward, but may I win the whole world? Yes it is! Even in the left / right superimposed after observation, our world is just a portion of the superimposed! When the electron passes through the double seam, it is not only electrons, but also the whole world! That is, when the electron passes through the double seam, there have been two superposed worlds, and one of the world has passed through the slits on the left, and in the other, electrons passed the right! The wave function does not need to "collapse", and if you choose to choose left or right, in fact, both may happen! However, it is manifested as a superposition of the whole world: people living in a world have found the electronics through the left slits, and in another world, the electronic observed electronics is on the right! The quantum process has caused "two worlds"! This is the "Multi-World Interpretation" (MWI) of quantum theory. To better understand MWI, you have to come from its founder, there is a legendary colors in his life, and his grandfather and father are also called hugh everett, so he is actually "Eflet Three people "). On November 9, 1930, Einstein published his famous article "The Scientific and Religion" in the New York Times Magazine. His famous saying is still resoned in our ear: "There is no religious science is a lame. Foot, there is no scientific religion is blind. "Two days later, Little Everrete was born in Washington. Everrete has deep respect for Einstein. When he is only 12 years old, he wrote someone in Pollinton's Einstein about the universe, and Einstein really reputation answered him. . When he got the undergraduate degree from the chemical engineering, he also entered Princeton to study. At first, he joined the mathematics, but he quickly thought about the method to transfer physical. In the 1950s, it was a quantum discussion, and Copenhagen explained that during the day, when the world was in the world. Everrete has met many physics students in this regard, including Boirs' assistant AAGE Peterson, the latter and he discussed the observing problems in quantum theory, which aroused Everrete very interesting. He quickly contacted John Wheel, Whele encouraged him in this regard, in 1954, Everrete submitted two papers to Wales, multi-world theory (sometimes called "Eflet "") The first appearance. According to the view of Everre, the wave function never collapsed, but only the world and observer itself entered the superimposed state. When the electron passes through the double seam, the whole world, including we have become two independent superpositions, in each world, electrons may appear in one. But unfortunately, Eflett has used a word "splitting" that is easy to mislead and cause ambiguity. He played a bit, saying that the universe is like an Amiba deformate, when the electron passes double seams, this bug Self-fission, reproduction becomes two almost exemplifications. The only difference is that a bug remembers that the electron has passed from the left, and the other bug remembers that the electron is from right. Huiller might aware of this word of words, he wrote in the blank of the paper: "Split? It is best to change the word." But most physics do not know his opinion. Perhaps, Wahler should make a bit of drama, such as writing "I thought of a wonderful use word, but unfortunately the gap is too small, can't write.

"In a long period of time, Efflet's theory was understood: When the electron passed the double seam, the universe magically" split "became two independent univers, and the electronics through the left seam, One of the opposite. So, the history of the universe is like a road, and each time is observed, it is booked into a number of small circuits, each road corresponds to a possible result. And each of the roads continue to observe and further split Detached. But every road is really real, but they can't communicate with each other. Suppose we observe the double seam experiment, found that the electron passes the left seam. In fact, the universe is unknowingly "Split" has become almost the same. We are now called "Zuo Universe", and there is another "right universe", where we will find that the electron passes the right seam, but Everything is exactly the same as our universe. You may ask: "Why are I in the Zoos, not in the right universe? "This problem obviously has no sense, because in another universe, another you may be asking:" Why are I am in the right universe, not the Zoos? "The status of the observer is no longer important, because all the universe will split, actually" all the results "will appear, and everything produced by the quantum process corresponds to the corresponding universe, but in most" wild universe " In the middle, there is no intelligent creature to make a problem. So, Schrödinger's cat doesn't have to be troubled for life. It is just a split into two, one has a live cat, a dead cat. For that live cat. The universe, the cat is always alive, there is no problem with death. For the universe of the dead cat, the cat is dead in the moment of the split, don't wait for people to open the box to "collapse", Since the birth of the universe, there has been a number of splits in countless times. It has grown in geometric grade, which is so fast. The universe we are now is only one of them, outside it, There are many other universal. Some are very close to us, that is, I have just been separated on the family tree, and those universe that are brought from distant ancient times may be very different. Maybe in a certain universe, small The planet did not hit the earth, the dinosaurs were still dominated by the world. In a certain universe, the nose of Cleopatra in Egypt is a little short, there is no teaching and Anthony, those who oppose historical decisions. " The nose sent a historian "must be greatly interested in the later development, see if there is a history butterfly effect. In a certain universe, Grick did not arrive at the slide of the slide, and Hitler did not be in front of Dunlick. Download an order to stop the attack. In more universe, because the physical constant is not suitable, there is no life and planets at all. Strictly, all possible things that can happen in the future, it has actually happened. Or it will happen. Only they are in other universe, and there is no physical contact with our own. These universes are parallel to our world, there is no contact, according to the principle of Akaham razor, these wonderful universes are all There is no meaning. Multi-world theory is also known as the "parallel universes" theory, is because of this truth. The "division" of the universe should actually be a misunderstanding, but now, most people, including many physics Home is still understanding Eflett! This, this theory is too big, and for a small electronic from the left or the right to pass by the right, we actually want to move the whole universe! Many people This comment is "killing chicken with cow knife."

Einstein once said: "I can't believe it, just because I saw it, a mouse made a dramatic change in the universe." He originally said to Copenhagen, but it independedly People's idea: use the cost of sacrificing the universe to meet the random choices of electrons, not too economical and cheap, and have produced so many non-observable "parallel universe" waste. MWI later, one of the most active encouragers, Bryce S. Dewitt, University of Texas, said in describing his first time MWI, "I still remember, when I first encountered the vibration of many world concepts. At present, there is a slightly defective self-copy, all keep split into a further copy, and the last face is unrecognizable. This idea is difficult to meet common sense. This It is a completely tutaneous schizophrenia ... "For us, maybe accept" consciousness ", but also more than I believe that" universe splits "is easy!" It is not difficult to imagine that Everlet's MWI has been published as a doctoral paper in 1957, although Whele's recommendation and revision, the physical community still reflects cold. Everrete used to fly to Copenhagen in 1959 to see Boce, but Bohore did not want to discuss any new explanation for quantum theory, and did not want to do this. This makes him heart. As Bol, he certainly safeguarded Copenhagen theory. For some other explanations in the 1950s, such as Golm's hidden function (we have to talk about), his comment is "this is like We hope that you can prove 2 × 2 = 5. "In the last interview before Boir died, he was also criticizing some philosophers, claiming:" They don't know that it (complementary principle) is an objective description, And the only possible objective description. "He gradually withdrawn from the physical industry, he first served in the Ministry of National Defense, and later became one of the famous Lambda's founders and the chairman, which made him soon become millions Form. But his opinion - later known as "one of the most deep secrets hidden in the 20th century" - long not paying attention to people. Until the 1970s, Dwitt re-discovered his multi-world explanation and vigorously promoted in physicists, MWI began to know, and quickly became one of the topics of the popular. Today, this explanation has already had a large number of supporters, sitting on the second chair after the interpretation of Copenhagen, and has greatly hosted. To this end, Efletrene plans to come back and return to the physical circles to do some research work in quantum mechanics, but he missed the death of heart disease in 1982. At the Texas University in Wheer and Dewitt, Everlet is one of the most respected people. When he was invited to do a speech of quantum, because his cigarette addiction is heavy, smoking is allowed. This is the only exception in the history of the auditorium.

Five more misunderstandings in MWI, recently, some scientists have also tried to be famous, clarify this rare "universe split" is not the original meaning of MWI and Everre (such as tegmark1998), we are here to talk about it. speak. Of course, it is necessary to accurately describe it requires very complex mathematical tools and mathematical expression, our history is still based on history, in theory as much as possible. Here is just a little brightening discussion with you, and the mathematical guarantees for use do not exceed the middle school level, I hope that all the officials do not want to see. First we have to talk about the concept of the so-called "phase space". Each person who has read middle school mathematics should have established two-dimensional Cartesian plane: draw a X-axis and a Y-axis with its vertical, and plus arrows and scales. In such a planar system, each point can be represented by a coordinate (X, Y) containing two variables, such as (1, 2), or (4.3, 5.4), which represents this point, respectively. Projets on the x-axis and Y axes. Of course, it is not necessary to use a right angle coordinate system, or use a pole coordinate or other coordinate system to describe a point, but in any case, for 2-dimensional planes, two numbers can be uniquely indicated. If you want to describe a point in the three-dimensional space, then there are 3 numbers, such as (1, 2, 3), which represent the projection of 3 mutually perpendicular dimensional directions, respectively. Let us expand thinking: If there is a point in a four-dimensional space, how should we describe it? Obviously we want to use coordinates containing 4 variables, such as (1, 2, 3, 4), if we use a right angle coordinate system, then these four numbers represent the projection in 4 mutually vertical dimensions. , Promoted to N-dimensional, the same situation is the same. You may not have to work hard in your mind to conceive the 4-dimensional or 11-dimensional space in 4 or even in the direction, in fact, this is just a hypothetical system we have constructed in mathematics. What we are concerned is that one point in the n-dimensional space can be uniquely described with N variables, and in turn, n variables can also be covered in an N-dimensional space. Let us return to the physical world, how do we describe a normal particle? At each time t, it should have a determined position coordinate (Q1, Q2, Q3), and also has a determined momentum P. The momentum is the speed multiplied by quality, is a vector, and there is a component in each dimension direction, so that the momentum P has 3 numbers: P1, P2, P2, P3, indicating that it is in three directions. All in all, you must fully describe a state of physical quality at T, we have to use 6 variables. And we have seen in front, these six variables can be summarized in one point in the 6-dimensional space, so use one point in the 6-dimensional space, we can describe the classic behavior of 1 common physical particles. The high-dimensional space constructed in our surprise is the phase space between the system. If a system consists of two particles, then this system must be described by 12 variables at each time. Similarly, we can replace it with a point in the 12-dimensional space. For some macro objects, such as a cat, the particles it contain can be too much, there is n, but this is not an essential problem, we can still describe it in a 6n-dimensional phase. In this way, an activity in any period is actually equivalent to one point in the 6N space (assuming the number of particles that make up the cat is not changed).

We don't have a good time to eat, but because in mathematics, describe a point of movement, even if it is a point in the 6N-dimensional space, it is more convenient than one cat described in the ordinary space. . In classic physics, in such a point representing the spatial space between the entire system, we can use the so-called Hamilton Equation to describe and draw a lot of beneficial conclusions. In front of our history, it has been mentioned that Whether it is the matrix mechanics of Heisenberg or Schrödinger's fluctuations, it is transformed from the Hamilton's equation, so they are later proven to be equivalent to each other. Now, in the quantum theory, we can also use similar methods similar to the phase space to describe a state of a system, but only transform classic phase spaces into a complex Hilbert vector space. The specific details of the details can not care, as long as they grasp the essence: A complex system can be seen as a point or a vector in a high dimensional space. For example, a live cat, it corresponds to a vector in a Hilbert space. If we use Dirac to introduce symbols, we can use a parentheses with a sharp corner to write: | Live Cat ". The dead cat can be written similarly: | Dead Cat>. Said that there are so many, what is the relationship between the quantum or MWI? Let us look back to see a quantum process, such as the classic double stitching. As we have repeatedly mentioned, if we don't see which sewing of electrons, it should simultaneously generate interference through two sections. At this time, its wave function is a linear superposition, and strictly evolved according to Schrödinger square. That is, | ψ> can be represented as: a | through the left seam> B | Through the right sew> We still remember the square of the wave function intensity is the probability. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that the probability of the particles is equal, and There is no other possibility. In this way, A ^ 2 B ^ 2 = 1, and the A and B were obtained from 2 to 1. However, these simply indicate the coefficients of probability, we don't pay attention to it. The key is that the system must be a "| left> | right>" superposition! If we don't interfere with this system, it is strictly developed by Schrödinger's fluctuation equation. For the convenience of expressions, we refer to this "U process" in accordance with Pen Ros, which is a process of determining, strict, classic, reversible (time-symmetric). However, it is worth mentioning that the Schrödinger equation is "linear", that is, as long as | left> and | right> are possible solution, then A | Left> B | Right> also meets the equation! Regardless of the development of the U process, the system will always remain in linear superposition. Only when we go to observe the actual behavior of electrons, electronic is forced to represent a particle and select a slit through. In the words of Topenhagen, the electronic wave function "collapsed", and finally we only leave the left> or | right> one of the uncommon. This process is like a miracle, which is completely randomly in accordance with the probability, nor can it be reversible, just as you can't let the actual thing you have returned to many probabilities of uncertainty. Still in accordance with Pengros' title, we call this "R process", in fact, so-called collapse. How to explain the occurrence of the R procedure, which is a problem that plagues us.

Copenhagen believes that "observer" triggered this process, and individual extremes were "consciousness", then what is MWI? Its statement may make you eating very shocking: there is no so-called "collapsed" at all, and the R process has never happened! Since the opening of the sky, at any time, the wave function of any isolate system is strictly evolved in the U process in accordance with Schrödinger Corcation! If the system is in a superposition state, it must always evolve according to the superposition! However, wait, this way is that it is a feeling, it is dripping, but it doesn't answer our basic confusion! If the stack state is inevitable, why we never observed the double stitched electronics in reality, or the death and live cats? Only when we don't observe, they seem to be superimposed, how does MWI explain our observing problems? Let's take care of the assumption of Eflett: "Any isolated system must be evolved in Schrödinger equation." The so-called isolated system refers to the system that is completely isolated from the outside, there is no energy and there is no material communication. This is an ideal state, it is difficult to do in reality, so it is almost impossible. Only the same exception - our universe itself! Because the universe itself contains everything, it doesn't matter "outside world", it seems that the universe is defined as an isolated system seems to have no big problem. The universe contains n particles, n even not endless, it is very very large, but this is not an essential problem, we can still use a state of the entire universe to represent the evolution of the cosmic wave function. The key to MWI is that although the universe has only one wave function, this extremely complex wave function contains a lot of "child" that is not interfere. The overall vector of the universe is actually a lot of multi-child vectors, each of the projections in a "child", representing a possible solution of Schrödinger equation, but these "child" They are all vertically orthogonal, they can't interfere with each other! For everyone to understand, we want to have a "quality person" without dimensions, it itself is a small point, and can only do linear motion in a dimension. In this way, the entire "world" it lives is a specific straight line. For this quality, it can only "feel" to this straight line, but nothing to do. Now let's go back to the simplest two-dimensional plane. Suppose there is a vector (1, 2), which we are easy to see that it projected on the X-axis is 1, and the Y-axis projection is 2. If there are two "quality points" A and B, A live on the X-axis, B live on the Y-axis, so for A Jun, all the "feelings" of our vectors is it on the X-axis. The length of the length is 1, and B is the projection of its length 2 in the Y-axis. Because A and B live in different two "world", they feel different! But in fact, "real" vector has only one, it is "superposition" that A and B feel! The same is true of our universe. "Real, complete" cosmic vector exists in a very high-dimensional Hilbert space, but this high-dimensional space is made up of many low-dimensional "world" (as we can It seems that every two-dimensional plane is composed), each "world" can only feel the "true" vector in it. So in every "world", the universe is different. But in fact, the cosmic wave function is a superimposed state in accordance with Schrödinger square.

But there is still a problem: if each quantum state represents a "world", why don't we feel that other "world"? It is quite unbearable that unbaudable electrons seem to have a specific function, you can feel information from "other worlds". For example, unspeakable electronics must feel the information of "left seam" and "right sewing world", or how to generate interference? This is actually the old problem: Why do we "observe", the superimposed state in the quantum level will never bring it to the macro world? Very wonderful explanation is: This involves the number of dimensions we describe the "world", or the number of freedom. In the above example, we got A and B to live in the X-axis and Y axis. Because the X-axis and Y axes are vertical perpendicular to each other, the A World has no projection in B in the world, that is, B is completely unable to feel that the world of A live is. However, this is a very extreme example. In fact, if we take two straight lines as "two worlds" on two-dimensional plane, they are likely to be vertical. Sample vector in these two world projections are largely "coherent", B is still able to experience the observations of A World to a large extent, and vice versa (see Figure) . However, if it is not 2D, but in a lot of dimensional space, we will draw two straight lines, and the degree of verticality is likely to be larger than 2 dimension. Because it has much more dimensions than 2-dimensional, the freedom can seek to interfere with each other in multiple directions. If there is a very high-dimensional space, such as 100 billion-dimensional space, then we will paint two straight or planes, they can almost certainly be substantially vertical. If you don't believe it, you may wish to hand it on your hand. In double seamed experiments, if we don't consider measuring instruments or our own vector, do not consider any environmental influence, just consider the vector of electronic itself, then the variables involved are relatively small, that is, said, Simply describing the "world" of electronic behavior is a lower-dimensional space. We have already discussed in front. In double seam experiments, there must be two "world": left world and right world. Cosmic states are projected in these two worlds for | through left seam> and | through right sew> two quantum states. But because these two world dimensions are low, they are not completely vertical, each world can clearly "feel" to another world projection. These two worlds still "coherent"! Therefore, electrons can feel double seams simultaneously and self-interfere. Please pay close attention to, "Left World" and "Right World" simply describe the behavior of electronics, does not include anything else! When we observed electronics through the instrument, the description of this incident is no longer a "left world". In fact, in order to describe "We have found electronic in the left" state, we must use a bigger "world", called "We perceived electronics in the left" world, or "know the left" world. This world includes electronics, instruments, and we itself, which uses more variables that are much more electronically than a single electron (light we have n particles). The dimension of "knowing the left" world is more than "left" world, it is very difficult to "know the left" and "knowing the right" world, it is difficult to do everything vertically, this dramatic change is to have a huge variable Introduction of the environment: When the quantum statement in the electron level is enlarged by the instrument or any macro thing, the dimension of the "world" we are used to describe the rapid increase, which directly leads to the original two projection becomes Basically, it does not interfere with each other.

This process is called "Decoction" or "Deco", the quantum superposition states in the macro level, is the direct consequence of the refund. It may be intuitive with the symbols you cited above, and the only uncertainty is the electronic itself when we have not observed, and only it is overlapping in two states. At this point, the state of the universe can be expressed as: (a | through the left seam> B | Through the right sew>) × | Not observed> × | The other parts of the universe> × "and" (and), nothing more than It is to say that the universe is composed of electronic state, our state and other parts of the status. When we have not observed, only the electronic state is in superposition, and as we have discussed, these two states may still be projected in another world. However, once we have observed, the cosmic state becomes: (a | through the left seam> | Observing left we> b | Through right sew> | Observing the right we>) × | Other parts of the universe> The superimposed two larger system: "| | Observing the left of our>" and "| Through Right Sew> | Observing Right We>", they can be simplified | We found electronic In the left> and | We have found that the electronic is right>, exists in "Zhi Zo" and "Zhi Right" world. The observer's "split" is at this moment because of the refund. Because of the large dimension, "Zhi Zo" and "Idea" world are almost unintended to intervene, so we don't feel superimposed in quantum states at this level. However, as the cosmic vector itself, it always evolved according to Schrödinger square. There is only one "universe", but it contains multiple "world". The so-called "collapsed" is just a "we" in a world that is in this mountain, because the childish idea produced in this mountain. Finally, I have to remind everyone that the space and dimension we mentioned here refers to the construction of Hilbert, not true time and space. In fact, all the "world" happens in the same time space (rather than in other dimensions), but only because they are orthogonal to communicate with each other. You will feel very incredible, but the quantum has already brought us more surprises more than once, isn't it? __________________

Chapter 10 Don't equally, this trip in the world's Qiocheng may make everyone puzzles, but like Alice's first embarrassment Jabberwocky, it is undoubtedly, it should be deeper. impression. Indeed, imagine that we have split themselves to projections in multiple worlds over time, and these points have increased in geometries, so endless. Such a wonderful scene is really implying a few more and smiling at the universe of our lives. Perhaps someone will feel that such a model does not seem to have a more lovely than "consciousness", Eflett, and those scientists who support multi-world, what is it? However, the benefits of MWI are also obvious. Its biggest rich great achievements are kicking the "observer" this hindness of the handy foot from physics. Now the entire universe is only strictly evolved in accordance with the wave function, and it does not have to be low-volatile to help "observe", or "smart organism". Physicians now don't have to have the miraculous "collapse" big hurt, but also put ugly patches on the beautiful theoretical framework to explain the mechanism of the R process. Our poor Schrödinger Cat has finally got rid of the suffering and live, and changed to his own life (a dead life) in two different worlds. It is important that nature can do our own Lord, it doesn't have to be delayed in the "observer" shadow, until a "conscious" owner rewards "observation" to become a reality, otherwise there is good Buried in the probability wave. In MWI, the universe is ranked as the only master, and any observer is part of it. As its evolution is divided, it is projected to a variety of worlds. The split of the universe depends only on the environmental introduction and irreversible amplification process. This objective sight is still in line with most of the traditional taste of most scientists. At least, it will not be mad as a Copenhagen, to let go of downs. A by-product of MWI is that it returns to the decision of classic theory. Because Schrödinger equation itself, it is decisive, that is, gives a state of a time t, we can deduce from the two directions to the state of the system. In this sense, the "lapse" of time is just a kind of illusion! In addition, since there is no "collapsed" or R process, only the determined U proceedings, "randomness" will no longer stick to people from people. In this sense, God does not roll, his old man stands on a high angle, bird's eye view of the wave function of the entire universe, everything is still in grasp: The universe is still strictly evolved in accordance with the determined Schrödinger square. Electronics don't have to throw the dice, make a random choice to pass a sew: it passes through a sew in both worlds. Just, for our Vangeral, all beings, because we are entangled in the red dust, and the restrictions in the red dust make our eyes, let us only see the shadow of a world. In this projection, the reality is random, jumping, surprising. (* By the way, clarification of words in words, for MWI, the general people like to call multiple branches as "world" (World), call their sum of the "universe", so that there is only one universe, It develops in accordance with Schrödinger equation, and "the world" has a lot, but it has not stopped from time to time. But some people like to call all branches as "universe", and the sum of them is called "Multiverse", such as The famous multi-universe physicist David Deutsch. This is just a problem, and the world is still a universe, they refer to it.

However, although MWI can be said to be self-circular, in any case, there are many universe in reality, which is too quirky in the average person. Even if it is a philosophically elegant reason (especially the Okham razor), people also feel that it should be careful about MWI: this kind of practice for small electronics pulls the whole cosmic water is not worth appreciating. But in cosmologists, MWI is very popular and popular. In particular, it does not require the special status of "observer", and the history and evolution of the universe is noted on itself, which makes the explanation of Copenhagen, and the cosmologists of the cosmologist who are creatured by the cosmologists in the universe . In general, physicists who are quantified (such as overcompass) and the syndrome of universe are more preferred, and if the scope is expanded to the general "scientist", it is considered that its weird unacceptable proportion is great. increase. Among the supporters of many worlds, we are familiar with Ferin, Winberg, Hawk, some people put the quark model, 1969 Nobel Physical Prize winner Gairman (MURRAY Gell-Mann) One of the founders explained as a quantum theory "consistent history", we still leave him to the chapter of the history, although this explanation can actually see the enhanced version of MWI. To MWI, MWI is directly opposed, famous with Ball, STEIN, Kent, Pengros, etc. Some people are also in gravitational, which is very unique. However, for the readers of our historical, maybe everyone else does not use the philosophical taste of the cosmologist or other scientists. It is important that now we have a Copenhagen explained, there is a multi-universe explanation, how do we Can you know which one should I believe? Everyone is different in life, such as you like Beethoven and I like Mozart, you like Li Bai, I am young, Du Fu, there is no big strange, but science, especially natural sciences. The reason is great, don't it be because it can be unique in the universe? Economists or for a variety of different models, you die, but the ultimate goal of physics is not to use the world, but to explore the mystery of the deep hidden in nature. It must treat various assumptions with the most stringent attitude, clear the unqualified pick-up from its own system, to keep it immortal vitality. The history of science should be a process of constantly reviewing yourself, constantly practical as the only quasi-rope, and constantly climbing the ideal climbing of the Plato. For this, it must provide a screening mechanism that looks very beautiful, but it does not meet the theory of the facts, which will become its and philosophy, or religion. Perhaps we can accept the views of the famous and controversial scientist, Karl Popper, draw the divided line of scientific and top school in "Candles". That is, a scientific argument must be possible to prove errors. For example, I said: "There is no white crow in the world." This is an argument that meets "scientific methods", because as long as you really find a white crow, you can prove my mistake, so that I will overthrow this theory. However, as the example we mentioned before, if I claimed "There is a flying dragon in my garage.", This is not a scientific argument, because you can't prove that I am wrong in anyway.

If we accept these unable to prove the error, we can have more functions in "science". In addition to the dragon, there will be three heads of dogs, eight legs, speaking Chinese monkeys ... no quicker . In any case, you can't prove the "do not exist" three heads of dogs, is it? If Hertz did not find the spark caused by electromagnetic waves in the 1887 experiment, then the Maxwell theory was delegated. If Edington did not find the displacement of those stars in 1919, then Einstein's relativity was delegated (although this experiment did not have a problem today). If Wu Jianxiong is not found in the experiment of 1956-1957, then Yang and Li's weak role will be demonstrated that it is not contended to be invalid. Whether it is still the time, you can design some experiments. If it's the result is a certain, you can prove that theory is incorrect, this is scientific certificate of defective. Of course, there are some concepts that are really certified, such as the rules, aggregate, light, but, in any case, we can at least say that the expression of what they take is in line with the "scientific" approach. Also, such as "God", it can be difficult to say, there is no experiment that the God "does not exist" (not necessarily there is no existence, but even this may not be). So we'd better kick it out of the scientific field, leaving to religious enthusiasts to think. Back to the history, in order to make our two explanations in line with Popper's principles, can we design a kind of experiment, which is to identify which kind is trustworthy, which is false? Copenhagen explained that the observer collapsed, MWI said that the universe split, but for us in reality, this is not observable difference! Anyway, the fact must be an electronic "seeming" randomly, according to the probability of the wave function, isn't it? Even if you observe more than 1 million times, we can't distinguish from the Copenhagen and the world who is not right! Since the 1970s, the Dieter Zeh, Sujciech H Zurek, Gairman and others have been developed, and the Decoherence of Decoherence seems to be huge for Eflet's multi-universe. s help. We have discussed a slightly in front, this theory explains how objects are transitioned from microscopic superimposed states to macroscopic determination state: it mainly involves the macroscopicity of a class of objects or cats, that is, electronic More degrees of freedom, and their interaction between them and the environment. This theory can be said in the MWI, which explains why the world does not show superposition under large scale, explains how the world "splits", which are unable to explain before MWI. In general, when the instrument is observed, it is also entangled with the environment. As a result, it results in the superposition state of the instrument quickly degraded into a classic association. We speak very rude, in fact, you can prove this from mathematics. If we use the system called "DESITY Matrix", the element on this matrix diagonal represents a classic probabilistic state, and other places represent coherence association between these states. We will see that when retracting, the density matrix of the instrument or cat rapidly, so that the quantum superposition properties are not returned (see the accompanying drawings). This process is extremely fast, we can't notice it at all. However, despite the theory of refund, it is a powerful supplement to MWI, but it can't explain that MWI is the only explanation.

With the universe, we can answer why we look at the world in a quantum superimposed and uncertain, we still seem to be a classic and "objective" at the daily large scale, but it can't answer the wave function until it has been developing, or It will be jumped from time to time. In fact, we can also use it in Copenhagen interpretation to determine the boundaries between "observer" and "non-observe" - ​​according to their respective size, or freedom! Those who are prone to incliner, may be more qualified as observers, so-called observations may be irreversible. But in the end, we still can't sure it is Copenhagen, or the universe! Popul was in his later years (he died in 1994), I think his mood is more complicated. On the one hand, some of his the arguments are correct, such as quantum mechanics itself does not rule out the factors of decisions (nor excluded non-decisions). Regarding the complementary principle, he was almost completely convinced by Bohgen in Copenhagen, but now he still remember other Alternatives. On the other hand, we will also be very interested in that Popper is explained for various explanations in the field of quantum, almost unable to use the current status of practice. But we still describe some interesting "strong support" MWI experiments, including that crazy "quantum suicide", and is currently hot, known as "working with multiple parallel worlds" quantum computers. ******** After the meal, gossip: Documentation and confirmation of "science" definition Two questions confirmed and dicted. How to express a proposition is scientific? According to the certificate pseudo, it must be proven to be wrong. For example, "All the crows are black", then you can prove the error in this proposition, so this proposition is not a problem with the crow that is not a black. On the contrary, if you have to "confirm" to accept this arbitrary, then it is difficult, and it is actually impossible! Unless you have seen all the crows, how can you know that you have already caught all the crows in the world? For scientific theories, "confirming" is almost impossible. For example, we say that "the law of the universe is f = ma", it is a universality, and how do you confirm it? Unless you have observed the phenomenon of every corner since ancient times, you can "confirm" this. Even so, you can't guarantee that in the future, this rule still plays a role. In fact, there is almost no scientific theory that can be "confirmed", as long as it can prove "wrong" but have not been proven to be "wrong" (according to Popul, with an active facial attitude), We temporarily accept it as a reliable theory. Since Hume, people have admitted that aliens are limited (even more), and they cannot constitute a confirmation basis. However, according to the experience of Locock, all of our knowledge comes from our experience, and scientific establishment is also an experienced induction. For example, we have seen the sun every day from the east, and the day of thousands of years, then we should "reasonably" to summarize a rule: the sun rises from the east every day. And use it to predict that the sun is still raised from the East. If you break into Hume's unknown ones, then we can't talk about any "knowledge", because anything is uncertain tomorrow. According to the inductory, we summarize a law from the past, and when this phenomenon repeats, it has become another "confirmation" for this law every time.

For example, when the sun rises again, the "The sun rises from the East" is once again confirmed again. Every time we see a black crow, the "crow is black" This proposition is once again rising again until we encounter a black crow. Most of us may think so, but this empiricalism will export very interesting results. Let's do such a reasoning. Everyone knows that a proposition deficiency is equivalent to itself. For example, "The crow is black", can be changed to the equivalent proposition "Everything is not a crow". Now, if we meet a white cat, this phenomenon has proven to say that "all blacks are not crows" (white cat is not black, white cat is not a crow), so, it also confirmed again "Crowbate Is black "this original question. All in all, "Meet a white cat" slightly increases the possibility of "crows are black". Interesting? This paradox is presented by the famous German logic TMPEL, and he also followed Hilbert's mathematics when he was young. If you accept this argument, then the next mentor calls you to the wild inspection, for example, "insect is six feet" propositions, you don't have to blow rain. As long as you sit at home, you can observe a lot of examples of "no six feet are not insects" (such as tables, chairs, table lights, yourself ...), you can make the same contribution to this proposition with actual observation in the wild! We are still very superficial for understanding the theory of understanding.

The two creepy and ridiculous "quantum suicide" experiments were proposed by Hans Moravec, Bruno Marchal, etc. in the late 1980s, and in 1998, the Cosmologist Max Tegmark was developed in the papers of the broad-known publicity MWI. Reverse. This is actually a real version of Schrödinger Cat. Everyone knows in the cat experiment, if the atom decays, the cat is poisoned, and vice versa. In this regard, the interpretation of Copenhagen is: Before we did not observe it, the cat was "died and live", and after observing the wave function of the cat collapsed, the cat was either alone. MWI claims that each experiment must create a live cat and a dead cat at the same time, but they exist in two parallel worlds. What is the substance difference between the two? The key is that the Copenhagen is only one of the cats, it began to be in the superposition state, and 50% may die after collapse, 50% may live. And many universe believed that the cat did not overlay, but "split" became two, one dead, there must be a live cat! Now, if there is a benevolent singer who is dedicated to the science, he will replace the unlucky cat. For humanitarianism, in order to make him less suffering, we change the poisonous cylinder to a gun. If the atomic decay (or uses other quantum mechanisms, such as the photon passed half-plated), the gun will send us a friend on the road. Conversely, the gun only issues a sound of "咔". Now the key problem is coming, when a photon reaches semi-plated mirror, according to Copenhagen, you may hear "" and then safe, the other half is not very wonderful, you heard "" and then I no longer know. According to the many universities, there must be one you hear "咔", the other is in another world "". But the problem is, I heard the "", I will die, what I don't feel, this world is not meaningful for "you". For you, the only meaningful world is the world you live. Therefore, from the perspective of human choice (where we have discussed the principle of people in front), the only meaningful "existence" of you is the world you live. You will only hear "" and continue! Because the universe is different from Copenhagen, there will always have a world! Let us launch a photon to a semi-plated mirror every other second to touch the agency. At this time, Copenhagen predicts, even if you are very lucky, you also hear a few "" and then finally die. But the prophecy of the universe is that there will be a "you" alive, and his world is the only meaningful existence of "you". As long as you sit in front of the muzzle, then from your own point of view, you will only hear a "咔" sound every other second, you will never die (although in other amazing worlds, you Already the corpse, but those worlds are meaningless)! But as long as you move from the muzzle, you will hear "" sound, because these worlds have resumed you to you, you can speak them. All in all, the prophecy of many universe is: As long as you are in front of the muzzle (for you) it will never launch, once you remove it, it starts randomly "". Therefore, for this tester himself, if he has always heard "咔" and alive, he can a large extent, and the universe explanation is correct. If he is dead, then Copenhagen explains is correct. However, this is no meaningful for him, and people are dead. You may be confused about the principles of people here.

In any case, the gun has been "咔" is a very small probability is not (if n, the probability is 1/2 ^ n)? How can I say that I will act like this? But the problem is that the premise of "for you" is that "you" must exist! Let us see example: If you are a male, you will definitely find such a "interesting" fact: your father has a son, your grandfather has a son, you have a grandfather has a son ... have been traceable to any N generation ancestors, no matter what history The glacier is cold, the flood beast, the soldiers, the hunger is poor, they can not only survive, but they are constantly, they have their son, which is a very small probability (if you are women, you can push it on the road to the mother's house). But if you feel emotion, your existence is a "miracle" that is not encountered in a hundred years, it is very laugh. Obviously, the prerequisite you can feel is your existence itself! In fact, if "objective" places, a family n generation has a son's probability, but for me, it is "must", the probability is 100%! Similarly, some people feel the exquisiteness of the universe, the probability of which is so low, but according to the principle of people, the universe must be so! In quantum suicide, as long as you always exist, then you must be 100% for you! But unfortunately: even if you find that the universe explanation is correct, this is just a knowledge of yourself. It is always the same as those of our bystanders: You are killed by a shot after several "咔". What we can do is, that is, around your body, it is in accordance with Copenhagen, you have already disappeared from the universe, or you still live in a certain world. We have been projected to the world you live, this probability is extremely low, but it is almost not considered, but for you "I", you exist in that world is 100%! Moreover, because you can't interfere between each world, you will never come from that world, tell us that many universe theory is correct! In fact, Tegmark et al. Does not have to pay attention to what "quantum suicide" experiments, according to their ideas, if the universe is correct, then for someone, he will not die, no matter how you try to commit suicide! If he takes a knife, then because the composition of the knife is a group of particles that match Schrödinger's fluctuations, there is always a very very small, but it is not a possibility of 0, these particles have a quantum tunnel effect in that moment, Take some way to penetrate the neck of the person without damage, so that the person is not dead! Of course, this probability is very small, but according to MWI, everything may happen, so this phenomenon will happen in a certain world! In "Objective", this person is killed in the 99.99999 ... 99% of the world, but from his "subjective perspective", he has been alive! No matter what the way is, the jumping is also good, the sleeve is good, the hanging is also good, there is always some world, so that he is still alive. From the perspective of the person's own perspective, he can't die! This is the coordinate launch from the quantum suicide experiment, the beautiful name "Quantum Immortality.

As long as you look at the subjective perspective, it is not only a person who will never complete suicide. In fact, once he started to exist, it will never disappear! There is always some quantum effects that makes a person not aging, and according to MWI, these very low probability always correspond to a real world! If the theory of many universe is correct, then we have gone is: Once a "consciousness" begins to exist, from its own point of view, it will settle forever! (Day, how do we teach "awareness"!) This is the strongest version of the principle of choos, also known as "final person". It can be imagined that the supporters of the many universe theory of Tegmark have seen their proposal to be interpreted to become such a story. After a strange, it is a crying mentality. This Pennsylvania universe cosmologist had to declare, saying "eternal" is not the orthodox in the MWI. He said that a person was "dead", and he also experienced a non-quarantined process, so that the so-called consciousness does not have a continuous transition to keep up. Unfortunately, I don't quite believe in his defense. Regarding this problem, scientists and philosophers will undoubtedly be interested. People who support MWI will also criticize that the death of "people" in a large number of universe samples cannot be simply ignored, because in "awareness", we are almost unknown, how is it "continuously exists", There is no investigation. Some biased opinions will think that if "awareness" will definitely exist in some cosmic branches, then we should conclude that it is not only always existed, but will always "continuous", that is, we should have "lost consciousness "When you are, for example, sleep or coma). However, there may be some worlds, where we never sleep, who knows? Besides, temporarily sleep and then wake up, this seems to be "meaningless" for "consciousness". More importantly, maybe how to define "you" in the world is something wrong. In short, this logical strange circle is endless, and there is almost no thing that can be tested for practice, it is empty. I think Popper will not be satisfied with this! Regarding the suicide experiment itself, I don't think I will actually try to test Copenhagen and MWI! Because no matter what, the results of the experiment are only known to yourself, you can't tell the broad masses of the people. And if Copenhagen explains unfortunately correct, then you will be mourning. Although "Chaotiang, Xi Dynasty,", but in general, smelling, it is better to use it to do something more meaningful. Moreover, even if you really don't die before the muzzle, you can't really decide, this is because of the results of multi-world prophecies, but just because you are very very very very. You can say that you can say: "I have 99.999999..99% of grasp, the multi-world is correct." So. According to ShikhovTsev's latest biography, Efletrene also believes in his "consciousness" to continuity along some universe of death (of course he doesn't know suicide experiment). But with tragedy and irony, his family believes in parallel universe, and his daughter Lez (Liz) said in the suicide of suicide, she went to "another parallel world" and he met him. (Of course, she is not suicide to test this theory). Perhaps Eflett is really unknown in a world, but at least in the world of our current (and most other worlds), we can't reheal.

So, at least consider the feelings of most of the family and friends in the world, I strongly recommend that readers do not do this under the enthusiasm of science. We have been working hard on the road in many world theories. It will also encounter something "awareness" and "eternal life" (really see ghost)! We still have difficulties and retreat, go back to the original branching intersection, and then see if there is any other different choices. However, before leaving this road, there is still the same thing, that is, the so-called "quantum computer". In 1977, Everlette received the invitation of Wyeth and Dewit and other people to speaking, at lunch, Dewit specially arranged a student in Whele sitting around Efflet, behind him. Ask about the problem of Hilbert space. This student is David DEUTSCH.

Chapter 10 Inequios is one of the most important events in the 20th century. The emergence of this new life has fundamentally changed the human society, making our ability to break through the limits, reaching an unimaginable point. Today, the computer has penetrated into every corner of our lives, leaving it, we are simply difficult. Others don't say, you are reading the history of reading, using my own laptop computer input and editing, although take a modern PC just doing text processing is simply killing chicken with a cow knife, or take Ine Stewart In said, "Just like Rawls Royce to send milk", but thanks to the progress of the times, this luxury has entered thousands of households. And in this information business society, its update is so fast, so that people will continue to be worried about the upgrade of their own "old" computers every two or three years, and don't have heartache. Those who are hard to accumulate. Looking back at the development history of the computer, people tend to sigh the development of science and technology for a thousand miles, and the sea is sang Tin. Usually we look into the world's first electronic computer in 1946, but of course, as each person defines the concept of "computer", people often mention German Konrad Zuse in 1941. The ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer), which was built during the year, is built in the ATANASOFF-Berry Computer, or the Tuling Group built in the German password during World War II. Anyway, these are cumbersome guys, the volume can be filled with the entire room, some are filled with a grunge tube, some dragging long wires, the input and output rely on punching paper or tape, and modern It is like the difference between beauty and beasts than the beautiful family computers. However, if we look very different from mathematics, beauty and beasts are in essence! Whether it is a huge early computer, or the PC we use now, they can actually be simplified into such a machine: it reads an input every time, and regards the difference in the in advance, according to the prior number of rules. Do a corresponding action: This can be written to output, or change the inner state, or simply do nothing or even downtime. The key here is that our machine input and output can be unlimited, but its internal state and rule table must be limited. This model is actually all "computer" prototypes, one of the yield of the modern computer, Alan Turning, also known as "Turing Machine). In the original papers of the Tulex, it is described as something like some kind of cassette, there is an infinitely long tape through which one end is input, and the other is output. Information is recorded on the tape, which is generally a sequence of 0 and 1. This machine reads data from one end according to the need to move the tape, and operate according to the comparative rule table, and finally output the calculation result at the other end. The computer we use now, no matter how delicate and complicated, essentially is an illustration. It reads the data stream, handles it according to a specific algorithm, and outputs the result at another header. In this sense, the difference between Pentium 4 and 286 is just a faster and more efficient, but they are also as a map forever, what they can do is actually the same! I mean, if give 286 at sufficient time and output space (which can record temporary storage data), the Pentium can do can also do it.

286 has been too advanced, even if degraded into the most original form of the map spirit, it is only to move tape to the right and make the corresponding action, and what they can solve is also the same, but only It is a problem that is slow and efficient. The information processed by the computer is 2 into the most basic level. In other words, it is from 0 and 1 sequence stream. Friends who are slightly familiar with the computer know that we call each "bit" message as a "bit" (Bit "(Bit, in fact, the abbreviation of binary Digit), such as information 1010, contains 4 BITS. 8 BITS is equal to 1 byte, 1024 BYTES is 1K, 1024K = 1m, 1024m = 1G, you must be very clear. For traditional computers, 1 bit is the minimum unit of information. It is either 0 or 1, corresponding to the circuit of the circuit or off. If a computer reads 10 BITS information, it is equivalent to reading a 10-bit 2-based number (more than 1010101010), each bit of this number is a determined 0 or 1. This seems to be a matter of course in people. However, let us enter the magical quantum world. A bit is the minimum unit in the information stream, which looks like a quantum! We recall what the strange sights seen on the way they have passed, what is the most confused? Is uncertainty. We can't affirm where an electronics is, we don't know if it passes the left seam or the right sew, we don't know that Schrödinger's cat is dead or alive. All possibilities are linearly superimposed according to the basic equation of quantum theory! The electronics passed the left and right seams, and Schrödinger's cat was alive and dead. Only when I actually observed it, God randomly throws a dice, telling us a determined result, or his old man does not roll, but projected us into two different universe. Don't forget, our computer is also composed of microscopic atoms. Of course, it is also obey quantum law (in fact, all machines are definitely obeying quantum theory, but for traditional machines, their working principle is not It is mainly based on quantum effects). If our information is transmitted by an electronic, we stipulate that when an electron is "left-handed", it represents 0, when it is "right-spin", represent 1 (usually we will "on" And "next" to express a spin direction, but there may be readers feel confused to "up to", we change the name, this does not matter). Now the problem is coming, when our electron arrives, it is in quantum superimposed state. Isn't this, it represents 0 and 1 at the same time? This is right, in our quantum computer, a bit is not only 0 or 1 possibilities, but it can also represent a superimposed in 0 and 1! A "bit" can record 0 and 1 at the same time, we call it "quantum bit" (Qubit).

If our quantum computer reads a 10BITS information, it is not just a 10-bit binary number, in fact, because each bit is in the superimposed state of 0 and 1, our computer is handled It is 2 ^ 10 10-digit superposition! In other words, the same information is read into 10BITS, and the traditional computer can only process 1 10-bit binary number, and if it is a quantum computer, you can process 2 ^ 10 such as simultaneously! The calculation of some kind of illustration of the drainage was used to perform a preliminary discussion by Bennett, Benioff et al. In the 1970s and 1980s. In 1982, the legendary American physicist Richard Fernard Feynman noted that when we tried to use a computer to simulate some physical processes, such as quantum superimposed, the calculation amount will As the simulation object increases, the exponential growth increases, so that the traditional simulation will become impossible. Ferinman did not feel discouraged. On the contrary, he keenly thought that perhaps our computer can use the actual quantum process to simulate physical phenomena! If you simulate a "superposition" requires a lot of calculation, why don't you use itself to simulate it? Every superposition is a different calculation. After all of these calculations are finally completed, we will make some kind of unprepired operations, and projected a final answer to the output. Ferinman guess, this is theoretically viable, and he does guess it! In 1985, our David that was growing in the influence of Everrete's teachings and multi-hostess theory. He simply took the old road that the Tuling walked in the year, successfully proved that a universal quantum computer is possible. The concept of "Universal Machine may be a bit unfamiliar with everyone, it can go back to Tuling, its basic idea is, there is a diagram spirit, and the instructions are compiled into appropriate coding pairs. Its input allows this machine to simulate the behavior of any diagram. I am inadvertently in-depth details here, because it is quite a matter of feet, although the mathematics is not complicated. If you are interested in exploration, you can refer to some articles introducing Tulex's work (I personally still recommend Pengros' "Emperor New Brain"), it is nothing more than what you need to know: our smart and wise It is proven to be a matter, that is, we can build a machine, which can simulate any special quantum computer, so that all forms of quantum calculations may be possible. The traditional computer processing information flow is used in the so-called "Boolean logic gate", such as and, or, not, xor, and more. Simply replace them into the corresponding quantum logic door in quantum computers. Said that there are so many, what is the benefit of a quantum computer? Deyi Conduct, quantum computer can't achieve the task of surpassing algorithms, that is, it can't do more than ordinary figure spirit. In some certain sense, quantum computers are also a chart. But unlike traditional machines, its internal state is uncertain, and it can perform multiple operations in the next stage. If a conventional computer is called a decisive chart, DTM, quantum computer is a non-decisive map spirit (NDTM). Deyi is also proved that it will have much efficient than traditional computers. In terms of terminology, it is much lower when performing the same task.

The reason is obvious, the quantum computer performs a parallel calculation, as in the previous example, when a 10BITS information is processed, the quantum computer actually operates 2 ^ 10 states! In this era of information today, online trading and e-commerce's wave is sweeping around the world, from the government to civilians, it is more and more dependent on computers and network systems. At the same time, the problem of electronic security is also getting more and more serious. No more hackers have spoiled your password, invading your system to tamper your information, then put your deposit in your bank, this needs We have strict encryption protection for privacy information. At present, there are many popular encryption algorithms, and many of them are dependent on such a mountain, that is, the so-called "large irreparable". Everyone has practiced done decomposition, and also doing the practice factor decomposition. For example, decompose the 15th to its product volume, we will get 15 = 5 × 3 such a unique answer. The problem is that the decomposition 15 looks very simple, but if you want to break down a big big number, the difficulties we have encountered almost cannot overcome. For example, break down 10949769651859 into its product bodies, what should we do? Worse, in solving this problem, we have not found an effective algorithm. A stupid approach is to use all known prigans to one-stop, and finally we will find 10949769651859 = 4220851 × 2594209 (Digitally takes the Fabric of Reality), but this is unusually inefficient. Unfortunately, with the increase of numbers, the time of this method is present in a geometric growth! Whenever it increases one digit, we will have more than 3 times more time to decompose it, so so we will find that even if the calculation time exceeds the age of the universe, we can't complete this task. Of course, we can improve our algorithm, but the best algorithm is currently known (I think it should be GNFS) The complexity required is only slightly better than the exponentity, still does not reach the demand for polynomial (so-called polynomial, finger When the number of digits of the numbers are processed, the algorithm takes time according to the form of polynomial, that is, the speed of N ^ K). So, if we use a large number to protect our secrets, only when this large number is successfully decomposed, we should feel very safe. Because from the above analysis, it is possible to use the "violent" method, that is, the exhaustion method is almost impossible. Although our processor speed doubles every 18 months, it is far from chasing the safety growth: Just add one or two digits to us, you can make a few decades. At present, some of the most popular encryption, such as the RSA algorithm of the public key is the building on this building. But quantum computer implementation may make all these algorithms in the moment everyone is self-dangerous. The parallel mechanism of the quantum computer makes it handle more than a plurality of calculations at the same time, which makes a large number no longer an obstacle! In 1994, Peter Shor, Bel Laboratory created an algorithm using quantum computers, which can effectively decompose the large number (complexity in line with polynomial!). For example, we have to break a 250-bit number. If we use traditional computers, even if we use the most effective algorithm, all the world's computer is connected to join together, and it is necessary to spend millions of years. But if you use quantum computers, you take a few minutes! When a quantum computer decomposes 250 digits, it handles 10 ^ 500 different calculations! Worse things followed.

After Xiao invented his algorithm, another scientist Lov Grove, another scientist in the 1996 Ball Laboratory, quickly discovered another algorithm, which can effectively search unsorted databases. If we want to find a specific record from a database with N records but not sorted, it is probably randomly touching the luck, and the average test N / 2 will get the result, but if the algorithm is used The complexity dropped to the root number n times. This makes another well-known non-key system encryption algorithm, DES faces crash. Almost all people are now focusing on quantum calculations, more quantum algorithms will be constantly being created, if they can make quantum computers, so for all encryption algorithms now, no matter RSA, DES, or other What elliptical curve can be seen as the end of the day. The most terrible thing is that because the quantum parallel operation is inherently mechanism, even if we continue to increase the number of passwords, it is only a small price to the crack, and these encryption doctors are actually bankrupt! In 2001, a group of IBM demonstrated the algorithm of Xiao, and they used 7 quantum bits to decompose 15 into the product of 3 and 5. Of course, this is just a very preliminary progress, we still don't know if we can really create quantum computers with actual value, and the entanglement of quantum state is very easy to refund, which makes us facing technical serious difficulties. Although in 2002, Stanf and Japanese scientists claim that a silicon quantum computer is realized using the current technology, in 2003, Maryland's scientists successfully realized two quantum bits of 0.7 mm, the mutual entanglement, Everything is in a good direction, but maybe the quantum computer really has to be achieved for decades. This project is one of the most popular topics, let us wait and see. Even if the powerful quantum computer is really commented, the outlook of electronic security is not a bleak, as the saying goes, God is closed here, but there is another window. Quantum theory not only provides us with powerful calculation of cracking ability, but also let us see another possibility: an encryption method that neversolithic crack. This is another hot topic: Quantum Cryptography. If the space is allowed, we will simply describe the situation in this regard in the history of history. This degree of encryption can be achieved because the magical quantum can break through the shackles arranged by Einstein - the mysterious inequality of the fate. And this is the content we are going to discuss right away. However, at the end of this section, we still return to the universe explanation. How do we explain the magical computing power of quantum computers? Deyi's claim that the only possibility is to take advantage of multiple universities, put calculations in multiple parallel univers, and finally summarize the result. In the case of Jia Xiao, we have mentioned that when it decomposes a 250-bit number, it is carried out at the same time. Deyi is angry and unrecognizable, asking those who don't believe MWI explain this fact: if it is not putting the calculation in 10 ^ 500 universe, how come the resources can make such an amazing operation? He specifically pointed out that the entire universe only contains about 10 ^ 80 particles. However, although the calculation is placed in a plurality of parallel universe (although it is still quirky), in fact, MWI is not the only explanation. Basically, the quantum computer is only dependent on the basic equation of quantum theory, not an explanation. Its model is from mathematics, and how you explain it.

You can imagine every computer in 10 ^ 500 universe is calculated, but it can also be explained in accordance with Copenhagen, imagine that there is 10 ^ 500 sets in this universe before the universe. The superimposed computer works at the same time! As for how this is achieved, we don't have the right to discuss. As we don't know how the electronics passes the double seams, the cat is still alive. This sounds incredible, but in many people, it seems that it suddenly splits 10 ^ 500 universe compared with the instant, and its blame is half a catty. Just as Kevinni said in the "Time Dart", even if such a computer makes it, it may not prove that many people must be better than other explanations. The key is that we have not yet get evidence that can be judged, maybe we should still see if there is any other road, which are all more strange directions.

Chapter 10 Items Item We Finally I can take it from the road to many worlds, and then reflect on the meaning of quantum. The brand we left in front of us is also alive, and in the multi-universe here, our situation is not necessarily good, maybe you can use the original words of Dewit, set a "schizophrenia" brand. Come to alert the world's attention. In Copenhagen, we are worried about how to bring the wave function to the wave function, and in the universe, the problem becomes "I" in the universe, what is something wrong in the universe. If we keep being projected to countless worlds every moment, which one is really "I"? Or, "I" concept simply defines the beginning of this moment, and contains a collection of all "I" in the N-scenario in the future? If this is this, then "quantum eternal life" is not so absurd: "I" in this collection is always living on a branch. If you don't agree, think "I" is just a moment of someware. As each quantum measurement is split into countless new "I", then our spirit is just a instantaneous Concept, it does not have continuity? Living in a universe that is not in the split, there is no new "I" branching, and I know why we will think that time is smooth and continuous, and the sky knows why our "self-awareness" continuity No cut. Whether it is Copenhagen or many universe, in fact, we have tried to explain such a wonderful nature in the quantum world: superimposed. As we have repeatedly revealed in the history, we have not observed, the quasi quantum wizard is always in an uncertain state, and must be described as superposition of all possibilities. Electronics are here, which are not as defined in the previous classic world before actual observation, there is a unique location. When a photon moves from the A point to the B point, it does not have a default trajectory default, a default path of classic mechanics. On the contrary, its trajectory is a vague, the sum of all possible trajectories! And not only all possible spatial trajectories, in fact, it is the total of all spaces and the total path of all times! In other words, photons from A to B, are a past, now, now, the future of all possible routes overlay. On this basis, Fengtan established his "path integral method to calculate the ratio amplitude of the quantum system in the four-dimensional space. We have seen the matrix of Heisenberg and Schrödinger's waves in the front of the history, and the path points of Ferin Manches are the third description of the quantum system. But it can also be proved that it is completely equivalent to the first two, but it is only another different mathematical expression. Metallimed Dueman Chart, this method is simple and practical, and it is very clever. Take it into the atomic system, we will be surprised to find that on the vast majority of paths, the amount of effects is mutually offset, leaving only a few possible "track", and this is in conjunction with observations! We must admit that the quantum theory is successful in reality, it can perfectly explain and explain the observed phenomenon. However, it is necessary to admit superposed, whether it is a superposition of Copenhagen-style superimposed, this is a huge conflict with our common sense for the real world. We still can't miss the classic era of the golden gold. At that time, "Real Earth" still retains noble objective bloodline, it is simple and clear, in line with common sense, an electron has always had certain position and momentum, not in our will or The observation behavior is transferred, and it will not be inexplicably split, but it is just a rigorous due to strict causes under the rule of universe rules.

Oh, such a scene is warm and warm, it is simply the peach blossom in physicists. Do we really can't reproduce this ideal, go back to the distant era? And slow, there is a road here, playing a big billboard: back to the classic. It even took Einstein as its spokesperson: this road leads to Einstein's dreams. God, Einstein's dream, is it the world that is classically objective, simple and clear, everything is dominated by strict causality? There is neither a dice of God, and there is no more cosmic copy of the wool. This is how people teach people. What are we still hesitating, hurry out! Time and space reversed, we must go back to 1927 and return to Brussels's 5th Soli Conference, and then afraid of the big debate that determines the rise of quantum. Our eighth chapter in History has described some scenarios of the meeting of this famous Qing, and we still remember that the noble debron of France told his "guiding" theory, but was blister. Questioning. At the 5th Solidian meeting, Boir's complementary principle has just been introduced, particles and fluctuations are also doing pleasure, Debroyi's "guided wave" is trying to solve this contradictory attempt. . We also remember that Debulli discovered that whenever a particle advanced, it was accompanied by a wave, which deeply reveals the puzzle of the wave-bonchomatology. But Debroyi does not believe that Boir's complementary principle, that is, electronics is also the interpretation of the particles. Debulli, the electron is always a real particle, but it is indeed accompanied by the influence of its wave, this wave is like a blind navigation dog, which detects the situation around it, guiding it. How to exercise, that is, why we call it "guided wave". There is no status of Bonn statistical interpretation in Debroji, which is completely determined and realistic. The randomness on the surface of the quantum effect is completely caused by some variables we are unknown. In other words, quantum theory is an incomplete theory, which does not take into account some invisible variables, so it is unpredictable. If you take into account those extra variables, the entire system is determined and predictable, in line with strict causal relationships. Such theory is called "Hidden Variable Theory". Debroyi Theory is not meeting, in the moment of the great complementary principle, plus its own immature, and suffered a lot of criticism, and finally sentenced to 1932 Fengnoy Man. We may still remember that Fengnieman launched a strict mathematics foundation for quantum theory in that year, and he proved that some of the strange nature of the quantum system, such as "unlimited back". However, in addition to these, he also proved a thing, that is: any hidden variable theory impossible to give determination of the measurement behavior. In other words, the theory of hidden variables is impossible to achieve randomness from the efforts of randomness from the quantum theory, any hidden variable theory - no matter what it is - it has failed. Gorgeous genius of Fengnieman douted everyone, no one was doubtful for one of the greatest mathematicians in the 20th century. The helplessness of hidden variable theory seems to have escaped the miserable end, while Einstein's strict causal belief seems to be destined to be bubble. Debulli accepts this reality, he is unlocious and full of fighting as Boho, but abandoned his point of view with a noblast style. In the past 3,40s, Copenhagen explained a uniform world, and the quantum uncertainty is deeply planted in the blood of physics. Many electronics and photonization are mysteriously filled in the universe, and the stars Out of the great wise man - Niels Bol's magic.

In 1969, the Nobel Physical Prize winner Gairman said: "Boir washed the brain to the whole generation of physicists, so that they believe that things have finally solved." John Bell said: " Debroyi put forward his theory in 1927. At that time, I was thinking about the face of shackles now, I was smirked by the physics, because his argument was not refuted, but it was simply trampled. "Who I can think of the genius like Feng Noiman, and there is also a ditch. His proof is not established! Vonnieman's theory of hidden function cannot be established on the five premise assumptions on the observation to give observations. In these five assumptions, there is no problem in the top 4, the key is in the 5th There. We all know that in quantum mechanics, we observe a certain system, we cannot get a determined result, which may be different in accordance with random output. However, we can calculate its desired (average) value in accordance with the formula. If we observe X for a determined vector φ, then we can write it to after collapse it. As we have repeatedly emphasized, quantum is linear, it can be superimposed. If we have two observations x, y, their expectations are linear, that is, there should be relationships: = , in the hidden function, we believe the system Light is not completely described by the state vector φ, which also has an invisible hidden function, or hidden vector H. After considering H, the results of each observation are no longer random, but the only determined. Now, Vonnuman assumptions: For the determined system, even after the hidden function h, they can be superimposed. That is,: = The problem here is large. For the previous form, we discuss average. That is, if there is a hidden function H, then we consider φ in order, it has a possible distribution of all H, which is obtained about the average of H. But after considering the specific h, what we said is not average! On the contrary, after h after h, it does not matter if the spirit of hidden function is, it does not matter, but every time you get the unique determination. The key is that the average value can be added, and it does not mean that a separate situation can be added! We like this: Suppose we throw the dice, the dice can throw 1-6 points, then we throw a dice, the average number of points is 3.5. This is an average, which can be laminated, that is, if we throw two dice at the same time, the average number of points obtained can be seen twice that throw a grain of the dice, that is, 3.5 3.5 = 7 o'clock. It is popular, assuming that the three people of ABC will throw the dice, and the two bits of two, B and C are thrown once, then from the long-term average, the average point is equal to B and C. But the assumption of Vonnieman will become. He is actually assumed, once we throw two dice at the same time, it must be equal to the sum of the points of the two people throwing a dice! That is to say, as long as the three people throw the dice, no matter which, the number of points will be equal to B plus C.

This can be greatly not necessarily, when a throws 12 points, B and C are likely to throw only 1 point. Although the average is to see A is equal to B plus C, this does not mean that every round is! The proof of Vonnieman is based on such a unresolved basis, and naturally finally crashes. Terminating his people is David Bohm, one of the most famous quantum mechanics experts. Born in Pennsylvania, he studied under Einstein and Aubenheim (in fact, he is the last graduate student who is received by Ben Burdley), Einstein's ideals also touched Glome makes him decline to pursue a rigorous cause of the rhythm and restore the original order of the universe. In 1952, Poland resurrect Debric's guides and successfully created a complete hidden function system. Physics in the world have been surprised to say: Does Fengnieman not have this possibility to completely exclude? Now someone actually raised an antique! The strange thing is that Vonnieman's error does not require too high mathematical skills and insights, but it is hard to pay attention to it in 20 years. David Mermin, I really don't know if it has had any experts or students since I have been studying it. Bell said in the interview: "You can quote my words: Vonnieman's prove is not only wrong, but also stupid!" It seems that we still need to keep it twelve in the road. . ******** After meals, gossip: The fifth public Fengnieman is planted on his fifth assumption, which seems to be a heavenly circulation in the meditation, 2000 years ago, great European Germany has also honestly hompeak in his fifth public. No matter how to describe the "geometric original", it will not seem exaggerated. It lays the axiom and interpretation system, which directly gave birth to modern science and provided it with the most powerful power. "Geometry original" puts all the propositions of geometry and 5 axioms and 5 public buildings, with these most basic bricks, have a high-profile building. It is acceptable to the five axioms and the top 4 public (suitable for geometry). But for the fifth public, people think that there are some unsatisfactory satisfaction. This assumption that the original form is less lengthy, and people often change it into an equivalent statement: "It is known to be a specific point outside the straight line, and can only be parallel to a straight line and known straight lines." For a long time, people have no doubts about the correctness of this public, but it seems that it seems too complicated, maybe it should not be regarded as a axiom, and can be derived from other axictures. But in 2000, there was no mathematician to do this (many times someone claimed that he proved, but their proof is wrong)! Ou Qi De himself also felt uneasiness of this public, compared to other 4 public, the fifth and fifth public is home (other four publicity: 1, can be launched in any two points. 2, you can extend the first line) During the line .3, the center and the radius determine a circle. 4, all right angles are equal). In "Geometric Original", he carefully avoids the use of this public, until there is no way, it has to be used, for example, when it is to prove the inner angle of any triangle and 180 degrees. Long-term failure makes people think about it, is it unconpected? If we use the anti-skilled law, suppose it is not established, then if we export contradiction, naturally, it can reverse the correctness of the fifth level itself.

But if the fifth public is not established, the result can't be contradictory? Russian mathematician Robsky (N. Lobatchevsky) is doing this. He assumes that the fifth public is not established, that is, the straight line outside, can make a straight line parallel to the known straight line and perform with this basis. As a result, he got a series of rare weird results, but they were a system of self-contained systems. They did not contradict, and they were logically self-contained! A geometry different from the European - Non-Europe Geometric Birth! From other assumptions that are different from the fifth, we can get some different theorems with the original versions of Europe. For example, "triangular inner corners and equal to 180 degrees" is pushed out from the fifth public. If you can make a parallel line, then the inner angle of the triangle is less than 180 degrees. Conversely, if it is unable to make a parallel line of a straight line, the result is the inner angle of the triangle and greater than 180 degrees. For the latter, it is easy to imagine the spherical surface, and any straight line that looks parallel will eventually enroll. For example, all the warps on the equator of the earth seem to be parallel to each other, but they are ultimately intersected in the two poles. If you draw a triangle on the surface of the earth, its inner corner will exceed 180 degrees, of course, you have enough to get enough to measure. Legend has it to measure the three vertices of the three peaks as a triangle, but it doesn't seem to find anything, but if he does this measure in the galaxy, the result will be obvious: the quality of the galaxy The obvious bending of space. Robski assumes a little one or more lines and known straight lines, and another mathematician Liman assumes that it is not possible to make such parallel lines, and founded a Rieman non-European. He promoted the situation to N-dimensional, and thoroughly laid the foundation of non-European geometry. More importantly, his system was used to physically, and eventually gave birth to the most outstanding scientific giants in the 20th century - general relativity.

Chapter 10 Inequanificent Five-Pomeum is a enhancement version of Debroyivoid, but he replaces the so-called "guide" to the concept of Quantum Potential. In his description, electronic or photons are always a real particle, whether we observe it, it has certain position and momentum. However, an electron has a so-called "quantum potential" except for some of the usual properties, such as electromagnetic potenties. This is actually a similar fluctuation, which is developed around the e-year-old development in accordance with Schrödinger equation. However, the effects of the quantum stage are independent of its intensity, and only related to its shape, which allows it to extend to the end of the universe without attenuation. In the Polanny theory, we must imagine an electronic imagination: it is essentially a classic particle, but it is spreading a potential field as a center. This momentum is spread throughout the universe, making it Every moment is the surrounding environment. When an electron is e-to-a-darling, its quantum potential will induce double sewing presence before it arrive, and guides it in accordance with standard interference mode. If we try to close a slit, there is an ubiquitous quantum potential to induce this change, leading to the electron alteration of its behavior mode. In particular, if you try to measure the specific location of an electron, your measuring instrument will first effect with its quantum potential, which will make the electron itself, which is unpredictable because of the main It is some "hidden variables", you can't detect them directly. The mathematics technique for Glob is very high. His system is indeed basically all of the traditional quantum mechanics can do! However, let us feel uncomfortable that such a hidden variable theory always seems to be more redundant. Quantum Mechanics came from the beginning of the century, and the physics masters created the basic mathematics of golden shiny. It is so beautiful and concise, so in the actual use, it is used in the actual situation, so that we don't think there is no reason to give it a cumbersome and ugly additional assumption. Glob's hidden function Theory is complex and difficult, and he assumes that an electron has a certain trajectory, but it also stipulates that this trajectory is absolutely observed because of the disturbance relationship of hidden variables! This undoubtedly violates the principle of Okham razor: there is absolutely not observed, what is the difference between this and does not exist? Do you have to give up the geophysical principles in order to give you a beautiful, clarity and conciseness of the physical principles? This even Einstein himself will oppose, he has a year from science and beauty than anyone. In fact, Einstein, and even Debroyi did not have a positive recognition of Glum. What is more unforgivable is that after doing all the realities and decisions of the world at all costs, Glum has given up another equally important thing: Locality. Declarationally, in a certain period of time, all causal relationships must be maintained in a specific area, and cannot transcend time and space instantaneously and propagate. Simply, that is, it means that there is a causal relationship that cannot be over-range. Any information must be sent with the upper limit of the speed speed. This is the spirit of the relativity! However, in Bolmry, his quantum will extends its tentacles into the end of the universe. Once what happens in a certain place, its information immediately conveys every electronic ear. If the theory of Golm is established, the super-light communication is simply everywhere in the universe. Einstein will not tolerate this! However, Glome did indeed breaking the ice caused by the mistake of Vonniman, at least a road from the thorn from the thorns.

No matter how, the theory of hidden variables is possible, then, we have at least one-line hopes, can develop a perfect hidden variable theory, so that we have a certain day in the future, it is true. And with a dominant warm world? This is the world, isn't Einstein's ultimate dream? On July 28, 1928, the most exciting Huazhang from the quantum is already in the past year. On this day, John Stewart Bell was born in Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland. Xiaobell showed a smart talents in the childhood, and he made a scientist in 11 years old and became a scientist. At the age of 16, Bell Bell was in a year, first to the University of Belfast Queen's laboratory for a year, however, his talents have deeply infected professors and employees. One year later, he entered the Queen University to study physics, although he was experimentally physically, but he also had an extraordinary interest in theoretical physics. Especially the quantum theory of Equity, it shows the deep philosophical connotation to make Baores quite addicted. When Bell was in college, the construction of the main part of the quantum has been set up. The basic theoretical framework has been created by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, and Bohr has made a sense of philosophical explanation. The most exciting thing in the history of physics in the 20th century has passed away. It is not necessary to participate in it. Of course, it is a regret, but maybe it is because of this, people have been calm down, not for the great career too blood, I can't help but fall by yourself in Niels. Buna, almost irresistible personal magic. Bell did not find surprise, they did not agree with the orthodox explanation of quantum theory in the Teacher and Textbook. Hesenburg's uncertain principle - it sounds so of subjective taste, really do not discuss. Bell wants a certain, objective physics theory, and he describes himself as a loyal followers of Einstein. After graduation, Bell first entered the UK Atomic Institute (AERE), and then turned to the European Particle Center (CERN). His main work focuses on accelerator and particle physical field, but he still maintains a strong interest in quantum physics, paying close attention to its development in spare time. In 1952, the theoretical came out, which made Bell feel quite excited. He fans who fans the idea of ​​hidden variable theory. It is believed that it recovers theory and decisions, which undoubtedly takes the first step to the ultimate dream. This ultimate dream, that is, what we have been mentioned, so that the world returns to objective independence, elegant determination, strictly abide by the orbit of causal relationships. Bell felt that the theory of hidden variables was what Einstein is required, and it can complete the completeization of quantum mechanics. However, this may be Bell's wish, because it is extremely ironic, even Einstein himself does not agree with Glum! No matter how, Bell is ready to carefully examine, whether the idea of ​​Debroyi and Golm can have actual refutation, that is, if they are really as claimed, we can abandon all quantum phenomena Determination, and use some kind of realism to describe it. In 1963, Bell met York Professor Bell in Geneva, and the two have conducted a deep discussion, and Bell gradually formed his idea. If our universe is really like Einstein, what is its nature? To discuss this, we must regain the ideological experiments mentioned by Einstein and the Boir discovery --EPR. If you have forgotten that EPR is something, you can review our History 8-4. The EPR version we described is actually a simplified Glome, but they are essentially the same.

Now let us re-do EPR experiments: a female particle split into two small particles A and B flying in the opposite direction, which theoretically has the opposite spin direction, but before the observation, the messenger is illuminated. Their spin is in an uncertain superposition state, while Einstein persists, from the moment of separation, the state of A and B is determined. We use a vector to express a spin direction, and now the two people stand in the distant skyline to wait for A and B, and that, the direction of the horsema, the direction of Benza in the Gemini). At a critical moment, in accordance with the standard time of the universe (in all directions, the universe calendar is 9 o'clock on August 12, 7:00, it sounds like silver British, huh, huh), both of the two people from A and B It is measured in the same direction. So, as we have already discussed, because of the overall conservation, these two spins must be reversed, no matter which direction is in. If the spin of A in a certain direction is positive ( ), then the measurement results of B spin obtained in this direction must be negative (-)! In other words, A and B - how far they are separated - it seems to always be like a contract, when A is , B must -, their cooperation rate is 100%! In terms of statistics, a slightly official point of terminology, (Correlation) is 100%, that is, 1. We need to be familiar with the concept of relevance, which is a variable that represents the level of cooperation. If A and B have cooperated every time, such as A is , it is always -, then the correlation reaches the maximum value 1, in turn, if B Don't work with A each time, whenever A is B is not 要 是 相关 (4, b-) correlation rate reaches the minimum value -1. Of course, at this time, it is related to (A , B ). If B does not cooperate with A, it does not confront the value, its value and A have no relationship, which is completely random, then B is not related to A, the correlation is 0. In EPR, no matter whether the state of the two particles is indeterminate before observation, the last result is certain: in the same direction (A , B-), or (A-, B ), correlation it's 1. However, this is in the same direction, assuming in different directions? It is assumed that the spin of A is measured along the X-axis direction, and B is measured in the Y-axis direction, how is the result of its results? In the middle of the episode, I told us that the moment to decide the fate is coming. In fact, we live in a 3-dimensional space, you can observe in three directions, we assume these three directions to x, y, z. They do not necessarily need to be vertical and arbitrary. The spin of each particle is nothing more than a specific direction, then there is 8 possibilities in three directions (imagine each direction into a 爻, then the combination is nothing more than 8) .

x y z - - - - - - - - 8 may be 8 possible for A, so what is the overall A and B? Obviously it is also possible, because once we obey A, B is also determined. If A is ( , , -), then because of conservation, B must be (-, -, -, ). Now let us assume that the quantum is wrong, the observations of A and B are destined in the morning, we can't predict that it is not clear that the hidden variable is. However, it doesn't matter, we assume that this hidden variable is h, which can be taken from the value of 1-8, respectively correspond to a possibility of observations. Let us assume that it corresponds to each possibility, and the probability of appearing is N1, N2 ... has been until N8. Now we have a possible observable result: AX AZ BX by BZ 's probability - - - N1 - - - N2 - - - - - N1 - - - N5 - - - N6 - - - - - N7 - - - N8 Every line above indicates a possible result. For example, the first line indicates that a spin in the three directions of X, Y, Z is , and B is in The spin in the three directions is all -, which is the possibility of this result is N1. Because 8 people must live in one, N1 N2 ... N8 = 1, can this you can understand? Now let us use a little primary school math level to do a correlation practice. We temporarily only look at the X direction, what is the correlation between (AX , BX-) in this direction? We need this to do this: When a record meets two cases: When A is in the x direction, the B is , or the a is not , and B is not -, if so, it is in line with our Requirements, marking the cooperation attitude towards (AX , BX-), so we will add the corresponding probability. Conversely, if a is in x, B is also , or A is - and B is also -, this is a destruction and contravement of (AX , BX-) combination, we must subtract the corresponding probability . As can be seen from the above table, the top 4 may be AX while BX is also -, the last four may be AX is not and BX is not -, so 8 lines are in line with our conditions, all positive number. Our result is N1 N2 ... N8 = 1! Therefore, (AX , BX-) is 1, which is not surprising that our table is the premise of this. If we have to calculate (AX , BX ), then 8 lines do not meet the conditions, all the negative, our results are -N1-n2- ... -N8 = -1.

Next, we have to go far, A is in the X direction, and B is in the Y direction how much is the correlation between these two observations? It is now two different directions, but the principle of calculation is the same: If a record is in line with the AX and by , or the AX is not , and the BY is not , we will add the corresponding probability, but minus. Let us carefully examine the table, the final result should be like this, use pxy = -n1-n2 N3 N4 N5 N6-N7-N8 um, quite easy, let's calculate PXZ, that is, AX is At the same time, BZ is N2-N3 N4 N5-N6 N7-N8, this time is PZY, which is AZ is and by : pzy = -n1 N2 N3-N4-N5 N6 N7-N8 is good, almost, Now let's play our calculation results, put the PXZ minus PZY and then take the absolute value: | PXZ-Pzy | = | -2N3 2N4 2N5-2N6 | = 2 | N3 N4-N5-N6 | Here you need to work hard, surpass primary school mathematics Level, recall the knowledge of junior high school. About absolute values, we have related format | X-Y | ≤ | x | | Y |, so in the top of the form, we have: | PXZ-PZY | = 2 | N3 N4-N5-N6 | ≤2 (N3 N4 | | N5 N6 |) Because all probability is not negative, 2 (| N3 N4 | | N5 N6 |) = 2 (N3 N4 N5 N6). Finally, we still remember N1 N2 ... N8 = 1, so we can make a 1 out of the above formula: 2 (N3 N4 N5 N6) = 1 (- N1-N2 N3 N4 N5 N6-N7-N8) Look at the previous calculation, back brackets Is there a big string in a large string? So we get the final result: | PXZ-PZY | ≤1 PXY Congratulations, you have proven one of the most mysterious and deep theorems in this universe. Now, in front of you, it is a famous "Bell inequality". It is called "the most profound discovery in science", which is about to make the final decision to our universe.

(Our proofs are of course simplified, and the vibration is not necessarily discrete, and can be defined as a continuous function on the interval λ. Even so, as long as you know a little bit of integration, it is not difficult to launch Bell inequality, you are interested. You can do it.)

Chapter 11 God's judgment 1 | PXZ-PZY | ≤1 PXY Well, this inequality looks generally do not see any magical magic, not to mention the ultimate ruling of our universe. Does it really have this power? Let's take a look at it, what does Bell inequality mean. In the previous chapter, PXY represents the correlation between the A particles in the X direction, while the B particles are also in the Y direction the correlation of these two events. Correlation is a reflection of a level of cooperation (whether both parties are surprisingly consistent or not consistent, it means that cooperation is high), and cooperation requires both parties to understand the other party, so that it can be effectively coordinated. In the hidden variable theory, our description of the two particles is in line with common sense: no matter whether observation, the two particles have always exist within the objective reality, and their state is undoubtedly determined from a split. If we prohibit the signal communication of the universe, then when we observe the two particles simultaneously, they cannot exchange any information, and the maximum level of collaboration can be achieved is limited to the limit given by the classic world. This limit, that is, Baell inequalities we derived with classic methods. If the essence of the world is a classic, specifically, if our world meets: 1. Domain, it is no supercap speed signal. 2. In fact, that is, there is an external world that is independent of our observation. Then we will take the spins of A and B to observe the spins of A and B, and the level of collaboration they exhibit must be limited to Bell inequality. In other words, if God is the kind "old man" that Einstein is imagined, then Bell is the sacred bondage of him to this universe. No matter how the direction of our observations is taken, the two particles in the EPR experiment will never take the dignity of his old people, and dare to break through this ban. In fact, this is not a problem that dare not dare, but the two classic particles do not have such a logically: since they can't exchange signals, they will never perform intimacy. However, the prediction of quantum theory is different! Bell proves that in the quantum theory, as long as we take the angle θ between A and B, it is possible to break through! Specific proven to use a slightly complicated little physical and mathematical knowledge, I have not talked here, but please believe me, in a quantum dominated world, A and B two plants are very distant in the situation. In different directions, it can still exhibit a high degree of collaboration, so that Bell is not established. This is something that can't be happened in the classic picture. Let's imagine EPR experiments: After two criminals robbed the bank, they flew from the crime scene, but they were flustered, and the two fled along the opposite direction. The police captured. Now let's admit their mouth, assume that the police armor sinned A: "Are you taking the lead?" A answer is nothing more than "Yes", or "no". On the other side of the road, if the police brought the same question: "Are you taking the lead?" So B's answer must be opposite to A, because the big brother can only have 1, not A with B is B, A. The question of the two police officers in the "same direction", I know A answer, it is equal to the answer to the answer, their answer, 100% difference, and the collaboration rate is 100%. At this point, whether it is the classic world or the quantum world is the same.

However, returning to the classic world, if two police officers ask different angles, such as ask a: "Do you need to hire a lawyer?" Ask B: "Do you want to drink water now?" This is two Problems that have nothing to do with each other (in different directions), a may answer "want" or "do not", but this should have no relationship with B, because B and A theoretically lost contact, b is impossible to follow A action to consider his answer. However, this is just a criminal in the classic world. If we have two "quantum criminals", it can be different. When A decided to hire a lawyer, B will have a bigger possibility to drink water, and vice versa! It seems that there is a magical mind between A and B, so that even when it is facing different questions, they still answer the uniformity! Bonnie & Clyde, the quantum, even if they are separated by thousands of miles, still in cooperation, in accordance with Copenhagen explained, because the two people do not exist at all in the "real" before the question is, but it is integrated, according to the wave function . In terms of Schrödinger, two people (particles) are in a state of "entangled" before observation, and they are "INSEPArability"! This means of just simplified, specific conditions or our Bell inequality. All in all, if the world is classic, then in EPR Zhongbell is not equal, it can be broken. The mysterious inequality in our hands has been a trial stone that determines the most basic nature of the universe. It seems to be the key to the door of the mystery. You can lead us to understand the ultimate analogy of nature. The most exciting thing is that some experiments with crancing (such as crazy quantum suicide), EPR is not unrealinated in the technology or ethics! We can do some experiments, come and see the world of our lives is like Einstein prayer. It is a domain, or its magic is exceeded to surpass our imagination, let us have these mortals have to Waiting for a more awesome mood to continue to explore its deep hidden secrets. In 1964, Bell put his inequality on the publication number named "Physics", entitled "On The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox). This paper is a famous artist in physics in the 20th century. Its arguments and derivation are so simple and clarity, and teach people to shoot. 1973 Nobel Physical Award winner Josephsen is called Bell inequality as "the most important new progress in physics", andstop (Henry Stapp, is what we mentioned earlier, advocating the spirit The collapsed one is called "The Most Profound Discovery In Science). However, "Physics" magazine did not get any luck because of this glorious papers, this journal is only released for a year. Today, I want to find Bell's original papers, it is best to turn over his work "Spectable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge 1987).

Prior to this, Bell discovered the errors of Vonnieman and wrote an article for the "Reviews of Modern Physics" magazine. Although this paper was published in 1966 until 1966, this paper has changed such an embarrassing situation, and there is a "certification" impossible for Fengnieman on hidden functions. The other is indeed The quantitative potential of Golm! The cacument of Vonnuiman is now destroyed. Now, Bell looks full: all obstacles to Einstein's dreams have been cleared, and Vonnieman has no longer shuts the way, Glum has taken the first step. And he has created enough quantitative quotient weapons, which is the powerless inequality. Bell's realities of the world convinced that nature could not depend on our observation, this still said? Now, it seems to arrange an EPR-based experiment, tell the world with an irrefutable evidence: in any case, Bell is also established. The inductive cooperation between the particles is purely nonsense, ridiculous, quantum theory has made our thinking and is time to return to normal. Quantum uncertainty ... Well, it is a beautiful work, a good attempt, worthy of getting it should have in physical history, after all, it is used. However, it can't be true, but it is just an approximation! More reliable, more close to truth is a traditional hidden variable theory. It is like relatively safe, no dice, no wonderful multi-universe, no super-light speed signal. Yes, only this can restore the glory of physics, the physics worthy of our pride and show off, the legislator of the real, solemn universe, rather than relied on luck and randomness to dominate the speculators. Really, maybe just a little bit of step, we can go back to the old days. The long-awaited world that has lost from Hesenburg, the great picture of the universe is strict and the silk is in order to run in an orderly manner, called nostalgic people who miss the classical era. Really, it's just a step. Maybe, soon we can sing Milton's sacred and immortal sentences in the accompaniment of the duct: the old music, and the years. There are unfaithful, and the henas is anger.彷徨 Exhibition, the defense One person converts, the crowds are tempted. Today, I am thinking, I'm another complex. This heart is boring, there is no evil way. Wash and return to the way. Zhisi Ye, rising ridiculous. ("Relax Park" Volume 1, 1-7) is only Bell seems to forget one thing: powerful weapons are often double-edged. ******** After meals, gossip: Golm and McCarti Times Poland are American scientists, but his greatest contribution is made in the UK, which is also due to the beginning of the 1950s in the early 1950s. McCarthyism (McCarthyism). McCartic is the product of the cold war. Its essence is crazy and disconnected. Under the ignition of Joseph McCarthy, this "red fear" has arrived at the highest wave. Almost everyone is suspected to be a Soviet Union, or the hopes of the hopes of the government's hostile molecules. During the World War II, Golm once visited the Manhattan program, but he didn't do the substantive work, soon withdraw it.

After the war, he went to Princeton to work together with Einstein. At this time, he was summoned by the un-American activity investigation committee, asked him to colleague in Berkeley. Political stands for testifying, Glhem agreed, and quoted the Fifth Amendment of the Constitution to defend himself. I have passed this, but the McChaki era has just begun, panic is spreading the entire US. Two years later, Bolm was tried because of the refusing to answer the question of the Committee, although he was sentenced to nothing, Princeton refused to renew the contract for him, even if Einstein asked him to leave as a assistant. Golm finally left the United States, he went to Brazil and Israel, and finally at the Birkbeck College of London University. There he developed his hidden function theory. McCarti era is a crazy and shameful era, more than 20 million people have accepted the so-called "loyalty review." Up to George Marshall General, China to Charlie? Chaplin, and undergone countless civilians are affected by huge impact. People's neuroplasses look for the so-called total-owned monitors, just like the medieval European madly grasp the witch. In the academic community, nearly 100 professors left the position because of the "view" problem, there were Qian Xuesen, such as the Chinese background, etc. More and more people were summoned to testify for the political field of colleagues, and this is alive, there is a kind of Globs generally refused, and some people move unexpected. The most famous may, even if the Aubenheimer has a case, the Aubenheim is the leader of the Manhattan program, and even he is suspected to be "not loyal" to the country. All physicists are standing on this side, but Edward Teller makes the entire physical circle almost couldn't believe their ears. This Hungary's biologist (he still Yang Zhenning's mentor) said that although he didn't think that the Aubenhemail will make things that are not conducive to the country, if the public is in the hands of others, I Personal will feel more secure. "Although the loyalty of the Aubenheimer did not be blamed, his safety license was confiscated, and the top secret material was no longer sent to him. Although some people (such as Hiler) expressed sympathy to Taylor, the entire scientific community has barely forgive him. Taylor is also a strong hensive blower and the actual designer (he is known as "the father of hydrogen bomb"), he tried to stop the signing of the "Prohibition of Nuclear Test Treaty", he also sold the "Star Wars" plan to Rigang ( SDI Defence). He died last year (2003), and he was 95 years old. Carl Calccagen's book in the "World of Devils", pulled him out as a typical example of the scientist should be responsible for his own point of view. Taylor will certainly have their own reasons. He believes that the manufacturing of hydrogen bombs is actually "safer" in human society. As us, maybe I can only hope that the science itself is not too much interference. Although this may be just a Utopian dream, we are still so wishing.

Chapter 11 God's judgment Einstein? That is a problem. The physicists finally act, ready to practice as the only criterion in the test truth, and the world is in line with which one of the two scientific giants. Boir and Einstein's debate is just like a kind of philosophical empty talk. Bubble has said to Bonn, and the essence of Einstein's debate quantum is like how many angels can sit in a needle. It is generally false, but now there is different, and our hands now have Bell inequality. The two particles are the sacred ban on the classic God, or they will contempt anything in a quantum revolutionary, breaking the rules that look solemn and inviolable? Now we can finally put it into practice, everything is waiting for the god of the fate. In 1969, Clauser et al. Improved the EPR model of Glomi, making it easier to implement. Then, in Berkeley, Harvard and Texas conducted a series of preliminary experiments, perhaps out of Bell, except for an experiment, all experiments were blurred to point out the prophecy of quantum. However, the initial experiments are not strict, and the prototype of EPR is far from the radiation of the atomic radiation to the polarizer, but the technical limit makes it in all cases, we can only get a single As a result, rather than and -, the original inference to get EPR will still rely on indirect reasoning. Moreover, the light source used at the time can only produce weak signals. With the advancement of technology, especially the advancement of laser technology, more precise and tight experiments are possible. In the 1980s, a group of scientists in the Institute of Osserai and Application Optics Institute (IRSAY Cédex) prepared for the first time to test the EPR in the precise sense, leading this group of Alean? Aspect. The French uses calcium atoms as the source of photons, they excite the calcium atom to a very high quantum state. When it falls to an unhable state, the energy releases the energy, which is a pair of photons. The actual use is a bundle of calcium atoms, but can be focused with laser, so that they are accurately excited so that there is a strong source. Aspakt et al. Gives two photons to approximately 12 meters away, so even if the signal propagates between the radius, it is necessary to spend 40 nanoseconds (NS). Photon enters a pair of polarizers through a gate, but this gate can also change direction to direct them to polarizer in two different polarization directions. If the direction of the two polarizers is the same, then either two photons are passed, either pass, if the direction is different, then theoretical (according to Einstein's world view), its correlation must comply with Bell inequality. In order to ensure complete communication between the two photons, scientists rapidly convert the gates, and the average 10ns changes once, which is much shorter than the light speed between the two sides, and the photons cannot know whether the other party is passed. The polarizer there. As a comparison, we also examine that there is no polarizer on both sides, and only one side of the polarizer is placed to eliminate system errors in the experiment. So, what you have to do now is to record the degree of collaboration between two photons. If it complies with Bell inequality, Einstein's belief is redempting, the world replies to independent and reliable, objective. Conversely, we still have to take care of Boir that seems to seem to mysterious quantum concept. Time is 1982, the summer and the early autumn.

In July, the fire, September, in the fashion capital Paris, people seem to be busy trying to figure out what styles will be popular this year. In the bar, sports fans are still awkward for national teams to break the Spanish World Cup. That year, under the leadership of Pratini, it was considered to be the strongest national team in history to defeat Brazil in a classic event, but finally gave the West German in the point of interest. The noble gentleman talks about the world's great trend in the Salon, and how old is the British of the old family, how to put the Argentina to serve the debts post. In the Louvre and the Olympics, it is always crowded with art enthusiasts from all over the world. The Seine slowly flows through the city center, reflects the shadow of the Eiffel Tower and Notre Dame of Paris, and reflects the roadside style Clear eyes. However, how many people know that in the absence of the Olympic Optics Institute, a pair of wonderful photons are excited from calcium atoms, rushing to the polarizer of those destiny; our world is accepting a game Ultimate test, uncovering her of her hidden in the mysterious veil? If Einstein and Bohr God are not true, maybe they also watch the results of this experiment in the country? If there is really God, what is his old man doing again? Maybe, even he has to give this to fate to arrange, with a golden balance and two weights of the two representatives to determine this world-natural property, just like Achilles and Hercules. The legendary duel under Troy City. A pair, two pairs, three pairs ... data gradually accumulated. 1,200 seconds, that is, after more than 3 hours, the result came out. Scientists have grown away. Einstein lost! The predictions of experiments and quantum theory are fully compliant, while relative Einstein's forecasts have deviated from 5 standard variances - this is enough to determine everything. Bell's inequality is really powerful, but it is not a glow of the quantum, but in turn crushed the dream of Einstein's persistence! The report of Aspakt et al. Published in December in "Physics Review Letters), the initial reaction of the scientific community is silent. Everyone knows the importance of this result, but it seems that I don't know what to say. Einstein lost? what does this mean? Is this world really more mysterious and wonderful than what we can imagine, so that our poor common sense is finally crushed in front of it. This world does not depend on you, it is not dependent on me, it is "there is there", is this not a clear thing? Why is there a gap between the conclusions and experimental results derived in such a basic hypothesis? Is God crazy, or is you crazy? People in the world try to repeat Aspakte experiments, and new means are also beginning to be introduced, and the experiment model is getting closer to Einstein that the most original EPR assumption. Scientists of Maryland and Rochester use ultraviolet light to study the continuous, rather than discrete output relevance. In the UK Malvern, people guided two entangled photons with fiber, so that they separated more than 4 kilometers, while in Geneva, this distance reached tens of kilometers. Even in such a distance, Bell is still a ruthless breakthrough. In addition, according to the original idea of ​​Bell, we should not let the photons are "in advance" observations, that is, to ensure that they can make some unpredictable events that seem to be unbelievable. (According to the prediction of quantum mechanics), we should make a random observation direction on the road they fly.

In the Aspakte experiment, we see them to convert the gate at a speed of 10 ns, but they can make the two photons separated by 12 meters or too short, not insurance. In 1998, Scientists in Innsbruck in Innsbruck made the photons flew out of 400 meters so they had a random arrangement of 1.3 microseconds to complete polarizer. This time is more than enough, the result is so uncomfortable: Einstein is even more miserable - 30 standard variance! In 1990, Greenberger, Horne and Zeilinger are showing people, even if they don't have to go to Bell inequality, we have better ways to zoise the sharpness and a "classic theory" (domain hidden variable theory) sharp Conflict, this is the famous GHz test (named at the first alphabet of the three-person name), which involve three or more photons entangled. In 2000, Pan Jianwei, Bouwmeester, Daniell reported in Nature magazine, their experimental results rejected the domain, which is the possibility of Einstein's belief - 8 standard variance! In 2001, ROWE et al. Describes more precise BE ion capture experiments. In 2003, Pittman and Franson reported that the photons produced in two independent sources were violated by Bell inequality; Hasegawa et al. Found the results of breakthrough Bell relations in interference measurements of single neutrons. In the laboratory around the world, the particles are tenacious to maintain a subtle and magical connection. As if to show off their ability, they repeatedly laugh at the classic world to give them the so-called unbreakable bondage, once again, the dog strip that is claiming is undeciable is under the foot. This phenomenon becomes such a conventional method that has become a conventional method of testing whether two quantum bits are still in entangled state (there is a benefit to know that your information should be eavesdropped. !). Although we may make more more precise experiments in the future, in general, in the EPR Zhongbell's bad breakthrough is an unconfilled fact. Perhaps in the future, new experiments will overthrow our current conclusions, let the world return to the classic face, but from the current perspective, this possibility is minimal. I don't know if Einstein lives today, what kind of view he will express this? Maybe he will say some flexible words. We seem to hear in distant heavens, he and Boir are still repeating the classic Calm: Einstein: Boce, Dear God does not want a dice! Boir: Einstein, don't want to command God? Now, let us be awarded, with a Nizi's gesture: Einstein's God is dead.

Chapter 11 God's judgment Sanssakt in 1982 experiment (accurately said that a series of experiments) is one of the most profound experiments in physics in the 20th century, its meaning and even Michaelson in 1886 - Moreure experiments are compared. However, the results of Aspakt were "expected" results than the experiment of Maxelson's tongue. Most people expect to come in the morning, and the victory of quantum is not under. Since 1927, the quantum has been found in 1927, it has experienced more than 50 years of wind and rain, it shows such a powerful force in each area, without any experimental results, which can make a little questioning. The greatest physicist (such as Einstein and Schrödinger) fiercely fired it, trying to put it from fundamentally, but its brilliance is more dazzling and pleasing. From a practical point of view, quantum theory is the most successful theory in history. It not only far exceeds relative theory and Maxwell electromagnetic theory, and even surpass Newton's classic mechanics! The quantum theory is the changing the chaos of the wind and rain, the soldiers who have passed the revolutionary test, and its temperament is grinding more tough and uncomfortable under the strictness of the wind knife cream. Indeed, not many people will imagine, such a theory will be easily knocked down by an opaque experiment, and can't get it. The success of Aspakte experiment is just another test of the quantum theory (although it is the most stringent test), it has given it a glory medal to give it a lot of gorgeous medals. Now we know that it is still successful even under such harsh conditions. Yes, don't affected it! This news has not brought huge impact on people's emotions, causing a sensational effect. However, it does forced physicists to an embarrassing point. Originally, people in this issue are usually happy to pursue a ostrich policy on this issue, and they can do not discuss it without talking. As long as the quantum is used, you can do it, do you want to put the philosophical significance behind it? Although people such as Einstein are worried about it, most of the scientists don't matter. But now, Aspakt finally forced people to show up: It is useless to slump the brain, people must face this fact: experimentally veto the possibility of classic pictures! Einstein's dream is like a foam in front of ruthless data, we will never go to the warm and comfortable peace, but must face the harsh reality of wind and rain. We must review our common sense once again, ask more reliable, how to give us a misleading. For Bell, the inequality he found later, but he did not only pulled the world back to the classic image, but also push it into the road. After Aspakte experiment, we must convince yourself to believe such a thing: the domain hidden variable theory does not exist! In other words, our world is impossible to do like Einstein, it is both a domain (no super-light speed signal communication), and it is real (there is an objective independent world, which can be determined for hidden variables. description). Declarative Realism excluded from our universe, now we must make a difficult choice: either give up the dominance, or give up the realities. If we give up the realities, then return to the old road of quantum, admit that the two particles do not exist within "objective" before we observe. They do not have a normal physical attribute (such as spin), which is only meaningful only after observations.

In the EPR experiment, the end is not finally closed, and our two entangled particles must be seen as an inextricable whole, then only "a particle" in reality (of course, it is superimposed), and no " Two particles. The so-called two particles, only when observations become real things (wave function collapsed). Of course, after making such a distressive concession, we can still choose from your own taste: What is further, completely fighting, but also keeping Copenhagen explanation; or on a high-level perspective , Reserved the decisive, that is, the universe explanation! It should be noted that MWI is not based on a domain (local) theory, and the statement between people is still different. Remove the opponents such as StAPP do not talk, even in its supporters (such as DEUTSCH, TEGMARK or ZEH), their diameters are not unified. However, this may just be a problem that defines and use words, because quantum entanglement itself can be defined as a physical process (ZEH, Found. Of Physics Letters 13, 2000, P22), but everyone agrees, MWI It is definitely not a domain, and the signal transmission of super-light speed does not exist inside it. The key is that according to MWI, every time we have observable, there is more than one result in "Real" (in fact, it is all possible results)! This is very different from Einstein's default. In this way, the world who psychologically feels firm and reliable (or "collapses"?). No matter what God does not throw a dice, he is built by us is not a strict independent building in an absolute exterior world. Each of its walls, each floor, every stair ... is closely related to various activities carried out inside, no matter whether this activity contains smart (conscious) observer. This building is not a piece of iron. On the contrary, each floor is entangled with a certain specific wonderful way, so that the guests separating in the top floor and the ground floor still maintain a sense of heart. However, if you can't stand it all, we can also take another road, that is, don't hesitate to keep the world's realities. Of course, this must be discarded. We still have a possibility to establish a hidden variable theory. If you take back the signal of a super-light speed, it is still well explained everything we observed. For example, in EPR, the two electrons of the horizon can still ensure that they have successful cooperation between them through instantaneous communication. In fact, Glome is still survived after the Aspakte experiment, because his "quantum potential" does implies such a superif.

But if this is the case, we may not feel that the days are good! Super light speed signal? Boss, what means? I want to think about Iifinistan how to say it, the super-light speed means that I have got back to the past! In this way, we will fall into the predicament that is even more tricky and confused than uncertain, like, imagine the famous scenes in science fiction: You return to the past, you will be in the middle of you, what will happen? What is the logic consequence? Although Glum may be displayed to us with high mathematics, although there is such a so-called ultra-emission non-domain association, his hidden function Theory can still prohibit we have to do such signals in practice: because of roughly Said that we can't do accurate "control" quantum phenomenon, so in real experiments, we will get the observed limit of the relativistic prophecy in the sense of statistics. That is, although there is a super-light speed signal in a deep sense, we can't deliberately use them to make logical strange circles. However, in any case, we should be very careful for this sensitive issue. Abandoning the domain, is not better than giving up the realities! Aspakte experiment results, BBC's broadcast producer Julian? Julian Brown and the University of Newcastle Paul Davies, he is now in the Macquarie University in Australia, he is also contemporary One of the most prestigious popular scientific writers decided to investigate what the scientific community will do for this important experiment. They invited 8 experts in the field of quantum theory to interview, seeking other views on quantum mechanics and Aspakte experiments. These interviews were finally aggregated, compiled a book, published by Cambridge Publishing House in 1986, called "The ghost in the ghost". Reading these interviews is really a wonderful experience and feeling. You will see how the most outstanding experts will meet, and there is an extremely different view on the same issue. Aspakte himself said, his experiment has fundamentally excludes the domain, he does not appreciate super-light speed, but expressed sympathy for existing quantum mechanics. Although Bell recognizes that the experimental results are not unexpected, he still never accepts God of the dice. He is still firmly believed that the quantum theory is a kind of equity, he imagined that the quantity of the quantum will finally prove that there is a more complex experiment that is more complicated. Bell is willing to exchange dominate with the cost of abandonment, and he even envisaged the concept of "Ether" to achieve this. Whele's point of view is a bit awkward. He acknowledges that it supports the multi-universe of Efflet, but then it has changed the point of view because of the incompatibility it brings. Whele discusses the image of Boir, awareness of the possibility of participating and his own delayed experiments and participation in the universe, and he is still interested in the role of the spirit. Rudolf peerls attitude is simple and refreshing: "I first opposed this word using 'Copenhagen explained'." He said, " In fact, there is only one explanation: there is only one way you can understand quantum mechanics (that is, Copenhagen's point of view!). "This physicist who has learned under Hessori and Bubbles is still lingering in the revolutionary era. That wave of magnificent concepts, the collament of wave functions is considered to be a unique reasonable physical interpretation. David? Deyi is also unambiguously selling the views of the universe. He said that the MWI is the most simple explanation for the Okham razor to "the existence of unable to communicate".

Compared to various kinds of "consciousness", the universe assumptions are actually the cheapest! He even describes a "super brain" experiment, thinking that you can actually feel the existence of many universities! The next is Glome, he calmly prepares to accept the dominant domain in the physics and continue to maintain real. "For Einstein, there is indeed a lot of things happen in the way he expected." Golm said, "But he can't be correct in everything!" In Glum, the narrow relativeism Perhaps it is an approximate situation, as Newtoni mechanics is an approximation of relativity in low speed. As one of the cooperators of Golm, Basil Hiley also emphasizes the role of hidden function theory. John Taylor described another completely different explanation, which is the so-called "arch" interpretation. The comprehensive interpretation of the system is a very special statistical point of view, that is, physical quantity is only meaningful for the average, it is meaningless for single electronics, it cannot be defined! We can't answer a single system, such as which of the electronic passes, but only gives an average statistics! We will introduce a comprehensive explanation in the back of the history. In such a toddler's debate, Aspakte experiment seems to give us a more confusing shadow. Einstein said: "Although God is mysterious, he is not malicious." But such a kind God seems to have left us, leave us a unintererated weird world, and endless quarrel. Our exploration on the road of hidden functions is also close to the end. About Golm's theory, there may still have many people express enough sympathy, such as John Gribbin in his name "Looking for Schringer's Cat" (in Search " Of Schrodinger's Cat also describes himself into a multi-universe supporter, while "Schrodinger's Cat and Schrodinger's Kittens and The Search For Reality), he is in MWI The enthusiasm has fallen, and the prudent optimism of the theory of Golm is. We are unclear, maybe the theory of Poland is right, but we don't have enough reliable evidence to convince us to believe this. In addition to the hidden function of Glome, there is another hidden function theory. It is invented by Edward Nelson, which is generally, it believes that particles are actually diffused in space in space according to certain specific rules (it is like Schrödinger's view), similar wave is generally developed. We don't intend to explore these views too much, our dissatisfaction is that these ideals of Einstein are far away! In order to abandon the defensive domain, it may be a thirsty thing. We don't dare to say that the speed is absolutely unhakened, just to overthrow the relativeism, it seems that it is still not big. After all, the relative theory is also a great theory that can be tested. We came along this road, but it was a beautiful blueprint that was promised to us, but the Einstein is finally bankrupt under the hit of the experiment. Perhaps we have at least realities, but this is not enough to attract many people in us, let them pay more efforts and expenses to continue.

Aspakte experimentally smashed our embarrassment, it did not prove that quantum is right (it only supports the prophecy of quantum theory, just as we have discussed, there is nothing theory can be "prove" is right) However, it undoubtedly proves that Einstein's worldview is wrong! In fact, no matter the quantum theory, it is impossible to recover the legendary domain real country, and this also makes us lose a large part of the driving force along the direction. Let those tired explorers continue to advance, and we will return to the original place, continue to pursue hard, see if there is a day of Liu Dichang. ********* After gossip: The ultra-emission speed EPR is not really hidden with ultra-emission speed. We still can't be sure. At least it looks like a similar effect on its surface. However, we cannot use it to actually transmit information, which is not contradictory with Einstein's narrow relativity. If someone wants to use this quantum entanglement, try to transfer a message from the earth from the Earth (South Gate 2, a star of the Southern Gate is the neighboring star, which is neighboring star). He is destined to fail. Suppose a future era, a wild home drives an universe spacecraft to the middle point of the two places, and then divides a particle, and the two sub-particles flies to two goals. He in advance, if the particles were observed on the semi-championship, it means that the earth's coup is successful, and that is, if "right rotation" is failed. Such communication is built in this predicted in quantum: that is, the state of the particles observed on the earth will "instant" affect the state of another particle on the distant half-man star. But it's hard to be able to make it successful: His success, how he makes him observed a "right-spin" particle on the earth to ensure that the half-horse is received by the "left radiic" information? He can't do this, because the observation result is uncertain, he can't control it! He said that when he made a random observation, it was found that the particles on the earth were "right rotation", at that time, he could have a grasp of the ground, 100% predicted that the distant half-horse will have received "left". Signal, although theoretically, the two places are very distant, the message is not too late to pass. If he wants to use Bell inequality, he must also know what observation means on that side, and this must be obtained by a usual method. All this does not violate the relativeism, you can't take advantage of this "super-optical speed" to make information on logically self-contradictory (eg returned to kill yourself in the past). In this principle quantum transmission (TelePortation) is actually implemented. Professor Pan Jianwei in my country has a total of trees in this area. In 2000, Wang Lijun, Kuzmich et al. Reported another "Nature V406) on Nature, which involved in a particular medium to make the optical pulse of the optical pulse exceed the speed of the vacuum, which is not violated. Relativity, that is, it does not violate strict causes, and the result cannot be "returned to the past" to influence the cause. Similarly, it cannot carry the actual information. In fact, our historical dialect has been discussed in the morning, Debroyi's "phase waves" speed C ^ 2 / v is fast than the speed, but as long as it does not carry energy and information, it does not violate the relativity. Relativity is not as expected, but in contrast, it is still one of the most reliable cornerstones we can rely on.

The eleventh chapter God's judgment is that we have returned in our third time in the exhaustion. The commitment given by the hidden variety is good, but the final fulfillment is a big discount, which has not been dedicated to people. Although there is also Gapm that is called enthusiastically, in order to get a decisive theory, is the price we pay too much? This is still a matter of implying a thing, but also makes us not dare to cast a bet, righteousness, walking down in such directions. If the quantum is destined to be determined, then we can do what assumes in addition to the concept of "collapsed" and the concept of "collapsed"? There is a view of utility and pragmatism. It is the theory of quantum theory as a pure statistical. It cannot make any prediction on a single system. It is a statistical concept! That is, in the seemingly theory, there is no "Individual event in our world, each prediction can only be average, for" Ensemble ", this is also It is the source of the "THE ENSEMBLE Interpretation". Most series monasters like to push the source of this concept to Einstein, such as John Taylor, or B. Sanctuary, McGill University, Canada. Einstein once said: "Any try to put the description of quantum theory will make it an unnatural theoretical explanation for the 'single system' '. But just accept this understanding, that is, Quantum Theory) The description can only be targeted for the 'Complete Collection' of the system, not a single individual, and the above difficulties will not exist immediately. "This discussion became the ideological source of the system," seemed to be a philosophy of Max Jammer " book). Well, how is Einstein? We still remember that it is, the hidden variable is not to pull him out as a sense and slogan? Perhaps Einstein's reputation, any explanation hopes to achieve the authority from him, but in any case, from this point, the series and hidden variables actually have the same cultural background. However, between them is that the vibration volume is made to "quantum theory is just a statistical explanation", there is still a more ultimate theory behind it, trying to see us. The hidden variable finds the highest goals that ultimately realize the dream of physical world: understanding and predicting nature. It is a strong spirit of it, but as we have seen, it has been seriously difficult and obstructive in reality, and has to give up many things. Compared with the vibration, the brave charge, the system is fully explained to the strategy of importing Pei, with a strategy to retreat. In its view, quantum theory is a great theory that has defined the world's understandable category. Indeed, the quantum is left to us some blind spots. Some of what we can't grasp. For example, we can't get an electronic location and movement at the same time. This is some people who have perfectivism feel that they are united. Difficult. But the series of senigues said: "Don't explore the unknown field, because there is no such area! Our world is in nature, no physical theory can describe the 'single' event, In fact, in our universe, only 'series', or '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' We still use the old examples that everyone familiar with, to illustrate the electronic front electron.

When the electron passes the double seam, it is assumed that we did not deliberately observe it, then according to quantum theory, it should have a determination and unique, developed according to time and Schrödinger equation. Vector: | Electronics> = | Through the left seam> | Cross the right sew> According to the standard Copenhagen, this means that single electronics must be in the superposition of the left and | right> two states, there is no certain location, it is here again There! According to MWI, this is a superposition of two worlds. According to hidden velocity, the so-called superposition is a crap, and the mathematical form of quantum is reliable. If we consider invisible hidden variables, we can really know that the electron has passed the left or right. So, what is the comprehensive explanation? It is holding a diplomatic circular attitude: the mathematical form of quantum is active, and it is necessary to keep it. But "superposition" is obviously violated, it is wrong. In turn, I am so eager to take, and even what is not observable, this is too fire, and it is even more true. What's more, the experiment reveals that the result is pure random nature, no one can deny it. So what should we do? A comprehensive explanation: We should be content, believe the theory tells us that it is already the essence of this world: it is statistically statistically! Therefore, it is useless to design hidden variables because the experiment has told us that the domain hidden theory is not, and the experiment also tells us that the same system is not given each time a certain result. However, we can't believe that the so-called "superposition" is an actual existence, and the electronics cannot pass through the left side! Our conclusions should be: For electronical states, it will always represent the statistical value of the system "Complete Works", which is a average situation! What is only representing "Complete Works"? In other words, when we wrote: | Electronics> = 1 / SQRT (2) [| passing through the left seam> | passing the right sew>] This type (1 / SQRT (2) represents the root number 2 1, we assume that two possibilities, the square of the coefficient, that is, the sum of the probability is equal to 1), what we refer to, not "an electronic" movement, and always unlimited electronic in the same case A statistical average! This formula only describes the results that occur when infinite multiple electrons are double seams (or, an electron infinitely in the same case) in the same initial state. According to the quantum theory, the world is not decisive, that is, even if we let the two electrons are double sewing in the same state, the results observed are not necessarily each time, but there are many possibilities. The mathematics of quantum theory can tell us that it is all these possible "architectures", which is the statistics expectation! In this way, when we say "electronic = left right", it means that a separate electronics is in the left and right states, but it is only pointed out in the concept of classic probability, it is possible to pass Left, and 50% may pass the right. When we "prepare" such an experiment, the quantum is able to give its series, tell us the results of the experiment in a statistical sense. State vector represents the system of the system! Well, it seems that it seems to be happy.

However, the quantum theory has become a statistical theory, well, when many electrons pass through the double seam, we know that there is 50% through the left, 50% passed the right, but now we care about Is a single electron! How is a single electron with double seams and interference with themselves, and finally play a point in the screen to make an interference pattern? We want to listen to the system's comprehensive explanation. But what you want is, it doesn't say anything! In its view, the so-called "where a single electron has passed", there is no physical significance! When John Taylor is asked, have he didn't want to describe what happened in a single system at all, he even said that this is not allowed. Quantum physics given only statistical, That's all, no other. If this world can be understood by us by mathematics, it is in a statistical meaning, we don't want to see more, then it is just self-discipline. Single electronics trajectory, that is a concept without physical definitions, just as "1 seconds before being created", "1 times higher than light speed", or "absolute zero level is 1 degree" noun, although there is no syntax Obstacles prevent us from making such a problem, but they are physically hard to do. Unlike Copenhagen, Bol et al. Assume that each electronics is depleted in accordance with the wave function, and the comprehensive interpretation is simply kicked this problem out in the theoretical framework, come to an eye. Net: Now we don't have to "collapse", talk about a single electronics is meaningless! However, this is really a torrential bell. Ok, quantum is only given, but our requirements for physical theory are better than such statistical reports. If I go to the family, I want to know how much my life is, but she only tells me: The average life of this city is 70 years old. It seems that there is no big use for me. I am not as good as insurance. the company! What hateful is that she actually said to me, you have no sense, meaningful, meaningful is just a "archite" of your life! A comprehensive interpretation is a very conservative and realistic explanation, which retains all mathematical forms of existing quantum theory because they have been fully proven by practice. But in a dazzling philosophy, it tries to escape those forms of discussion, using methods for the use of the theory to apply themselves in a housing that is not in. Yes, if we adopt the linerism, then in the pure theory, we have solved all the problems: there is nothing to collapse, the electron is always just particles (waveability can only be used to describe the "complete set" of the particles), no The determination principle is only seen as a statistical limit, without igniting that a single electron can not have momentum and location at the same time (this problem "is meaningless"). However, this seems to be a bit self-deceived, and it may be convenient for "no meaning", but it is indeed such a problem! Everyone knows that when many electrons produce interference pattern, we are more interested or what happened when a single electron passes, rather than simply turning the head! Taylor is indeed asked in the interview. Is this practice not a "escape" 词? He replied very shieldally: "I think you should ask if you can't get more troubles if it is inverting whether it is more than the escape." The series is the ultimate pragmetism. And the universe explanation, because the last two brought a lot of "trouble".

As long as we make full use of the existing system, we will not violate the results of the experiment, and can you still have a logically self-contained system? The spirit of comprehensive explanation is to avoid "trouble" as little as possible, never introduce a hypothetical assumption, such as multi-universe or collapsed. However, we still can't satisfy such a way to close the door and claim that all problems have been solved. Perhaps, it is because the enthusiasm in our blood has not yet cooled, and maybe because we are still young, and there is deep excitement and endless curiosity for this universe. We are not afraid to enter a more decent and mysterious canyon and forests to explore the truth of the facts. Even if I am destined to be entangled by some more annoying and caught the elf, we still can't give up the hope and motivation of advance, because it is our most valuable wealth. Next, we have to take a look at the two new roads. Although they are new, they are bumpy, they are difficult, but the peaks along the way are in the sky. Will disappoint you.

The eleventh chapter of God's judgment 5 we have tired of which slits have passed through which the photons have passed, which is the same, what is the relationship with us? A small photon is so inconspicuous, and its world has went through our world, and it could not be associated. In most cases, we can't even see a single photon (someone has done experiments, the naked eye seeing a single photons, but the probability is extremely low, and its wavelength must strictly be most sensitive to retinal baccar cells The band), in this case, the public is a "ghost" or "real" to explore the single photons, and there is no doubt that there is no reason, and even the exploration of the worry. It really causing people to worry, or the sequelae that was dropped by Schrödinger: From a micro to macro. If the photon is the particle is also a wave, why is the cat not dead and alive? If the electronics are there again here, then why the table is stable in its original place, did not spread into the entire room? If the basic attribute of the quantum effect is superposed, why there is no such superimposed in the daily world, or why have we never seen this situation? We have listened to a lot of patience and not tired of explanation: the cat is indeed dying, but "collapses" when we observe; there are two cats, they live in a universe, die in another universe; The cat has never died and live, and its death is determined by the invisible hidden variable; the death of a single cat is incidentally, we can only describe the "Complete Works" of infinite cats ... Something like this. Maybe you have been satisfied with some of them, but there are still many people don't know: there must be better and more reliable answers. In order to get it, we still need to continue to pursue, to open up new roads, even if there is a ridiculous, thorns. After all, there is no way to live in the world, and people who go will become a road. Now let's take some new road to take a new road, like the Columbus who sails in the year, they are also Italian. These pioneers' names are engraved on the intersection of the intersection: Ghirardi, Rimini and Weber, below is the date of completion: July 1986. In order to commemorate these pioneers, we will name this road in order to name the road, called GRW Avenue. The initial envision of this idea can retrore the PHILIP Pearle of the 1970s: Copenhagen's characters are undoubtedly great and have a hole, but they have never given the "collapsed" physical process, and for "observer" Subjective dependence is also too heavy. Finally, I finally made a "consciousness" that I can't clean up, and there is a suspicion of degradation. Can Schrödinger Equations with a slight modification, so that it can have a satisfactory explanation for "collapse"? On July 15, 1986, the three scientists we mentioned in "Physical Comments" magazine published a papers, entitled "Unified Dynamics for Microoscopic and Macroscopic Systems), Thus created GRW theory. The main assumption of GRW is that any system, whether it is micro or macro, it is impossible to isolate strict sense, that is, the outside world is not coherent.

They always communicate with the environment, which is affected by the Stochastic process, these random physical processes - no matter what they essentially - will randomly cause certain micro-systems, such as an electronics Location, from a diffuse superposed state to a relatively accurate domain in space (actually the "collapse" in Copenhagen, although the possibility of such a process is like this for a single particle. According to their original estimates, the average should wait 10 ^ 16 seconds, which is only 1 billion years. Therefore, from the whole, the micro system is basically in the superposed state, but this set of domain has occasged, and we call this as a "spontaneous domain process" (SPONTANEOS Localization). GRW sometimes refers to "spontaneous domain theory". The key is that although a spontaneous process can be welcomed for a single particle to wait for such a long time, it may not be available for a macro system. Take the poor cat, one cat consists of approximately 10 ^ 27 particles, although each particle has to wait for billion to have a spontaneous domain, but the system like a cat, every Seconds must have thousands of particles experience this process. Ghirardi et al. Converts Schrödinger Corcation to the so-called density matrix equation, then makes a complex calculation to see what the spontaneous domain process will cause what impact on the entire system. They found that because the particles in the entire system are actually entangled together, a few particles spontaneously affect the entire system very quickly, just like pushing a bone and then causing a large-scale domino effect. . The final result is that the entire macro system will complete a whole spontaneous domain in a very short time. If a particles spend an average of 1 billion years, then for a system containing 1 molar particles (the order is 10 ^ 23), it will have a domain in 0.1 microseconds, making its location from a diffuse Come becomes exactly appearing at some location. This should not be "observer", nor involve "consciousness, it is just based on the random process! If this is the case, then when it is said that Schrödinger's life and death, it did experience dead / live superposition! Only this superimposed only is very short, very short, and then "spontaneously" is immediately "accurately, it has become a daily meaning, simple non-dead. Because the time is very short, we can't feel this overlay process! This is really good, we have a unified theory that can explain the unimbletibility of the micro-quantum superposition and macroscopic objects. However, GRW itself still faces serious difficulties, this avenue is not so smooth. Their papers published the year, Hydeburg University's E.JOOS submitted to the "Physical Comment" comment on this theory, and this comment also published in the following year and presented GRW. Since then, the question of GRW has been very big, although some people like it very much, but never become mainstream in physicists. There are many reasonable reasons to be quite technically. For the readers of our history, I just want to be slightly mentioned at the most beautiful level. The calculation of GRW is completely based on a random process, and does not introduce a hypothesis such as "observation makes the wave function collapsed". They have assumed the "spontaneous" process assumed here, although their concepts and "collapses" are similar, in fact, the location of a particle becomes a relatively accurate distribution, not a completely determined location! In other words, regardless of the collapse or collapsed, the position of the particles is always an uncertain distribution, and must be described in the statistical curve (Gaussle Curve).

The so-called collapse is just that it turns a very sharp curve from a very small curve. In Copenhagen explanation, as long as one observation, the location of the system is completely determined, while GRW does not need "observer", but there is nothing in its frame, it is actually determined, only "very Accurate "," more accurate "," very incorrect "differences. For example, when I stared at you, you don't have a fully determined location, although you make% of your substances (particles) gather in the place you stand, but really describe you or a bellline (Although it is a very sharp bellline)! I can only say, "Most of you" in that place you stand, and make up your additional "one quicker" (although it is very little very little handful), it is still filled in the space. , Full of houses, even extended to the end of the universe! In other words, at any time, "you" fills the entire universe, but you gather in a place. As a macro object, the obvious quantum superposition can complete spontaneous domains in a short period of time, but this only means that most particles gathered to a place, there is always a small part of the particles still stay in the endless space. in. Simply speaking, this is nothing wrong, who knows if you really have a small part of the unaware that is filling in the space? But this is in violation of common sense! If you must violate common sense, then we simply admit that the cat is dead and live, it seems that it is not bad. GRW also abandoned energy conservation (of course, according to relativity, in fact, it is conserved). Spontaneous collapship makes such conservation actually not set up, but destruction is that small, the time you need is so long, so that people don't pay attention to it. Abandoning energy conservation in many people seem to be tolerated. We still remember that Bohr's BKS theory was suddenly slated by Einstein and bubble. Also, if spontaneous collapsed time is inversely compared with the number of particles constituting the system, the less the average time required to form a system, the longer the average time required, then we describe some very small The prediction of this theory seems to be not very wonderful when detecting the device. For example, to detect a photon position, we don't have to use a large and complicated instrument, and you can use very simple photosensitors. If you have arranged, we can use only billion particles (mainly silver ions) to complete this task. According to Copenhagen, this is undoubtedly a "observation", which can immediately collapse the photon wave function to get a certain position, but if the method is calculated by GRW, such a small system must wait for almost one year. A "spontaneous" domain. Roland Omnes later mentioned that Ghirardi acknowledged this difficult in private conversations. But he argued that even if the number of particles involved in the process of photons, the number of particles involved in the process is not enough to make the system quickly complete the spontaneous domain, we can't realize this! If we don't observe the results of this experiment, whoever knows, says that the photons really need to wait for the precise position. But once we went to observe the experimental results, this will also involve our own brain. The key is that our brain is enough "big" (there is no ideology, it is not important), enough objects make the photon quickly got a relatively accurate positioning! It is broadcasted because we have a big head, so no matter what we look, there will be a quantum of the location. If we take a complicated instrument to measure, then of course, the object is immediately accurate when the measurement is measured.