From the stone age to the silicon era
- Review of modern scientific development from the development of semiconductor industries
The anthropologist said that you are a modern Juto, which is more than 200,000 years ago. Historians divide these 200,000 years into stone age, copper era and iron era. Sociologists claim to be present now. Think carefully, or a historian deep. Human material civilization is in the end is the production and use of the appliance, and the material is made up of the logo as the civilization stage. The characteristic material of the information age is silicon. Today, the output value of silicon is the output value of steel as a raw material, and the history of human beings is officially entered a new era. According to historians, it is relative to the stone era, and contemporary should be called the silicon era. Silicon represents a semiconductor component, including storage devices, microprocessors, logic devices, and probes, etc. Silicon is the most common element in the crust, the main components of many rocks are silica, however, through the integrated circuit made of hundreds of processes, its value can reach 10,000 US dollars; the process of turning the stone into a silicon wafer is The achievements of a masonry are also one of the miracles of modern science. From this point of view, human scientific development process can also be seen as a process that keeps looking for new materials, but God seems to have a joke with humans, with 20,000 years, our materials come back from the stone. ! However, the changes in each era have symbolized a leap in human sciences and technology, which is precisely due to the development of science and technology, and promoted the advancement of human society. Since the birth of the first transistor in 1948, it is only more than 50 years, but the wealth created in these 50 years is the contract of past few times. Therefore, the development of the semiconductor industry is a microcosm of the development of modern science and technology.
P-N junction
As early as this century, people have mastered the movement of electronics in the vacuum, invented vacuum transistors (tubes), and created new areas of electronic technology. However, the vacuum triode has a very low efficiency, plus the filament overheating, short use, especially the effect of processing high-frequency signals, and scientists have been looking for new materials to replace the defects of vacuum tubes. Scientists in Bell Laboratory, UST Telephone Company, New Jersey, USA, find a better detection material, and finding a very small amount of ruthenium material rectification performance than the tube.
1940
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American scientist Orol and Skaf, with a voltmeter with a wire-based wafer, when he irradiated this silicon rod with a flashlight, the pointer of the volt table was deflected to a half-turbine scale. on. When this silicon rod is prepared, in order to avoid bursting, the silicon is first melted and then cooled, during the solidification of silicon crystals, the impurities in the silicon ingot are simultaneously separated, the center portion is "pure" silicon, but at the top Part of the impurities is "product" silicon. At cutting, a technician unintentionally exactly in the intersection of pure silicon and merchandise. Therefore, one of them appears as the feature of pure silicon, and the other part exhibits the characteristics of "product" silicon. It seems that the barrier is formed on the interface at the junction of the two districts, just like a barrier is necessitable at the interface between the metal copper and the oxide layer. When aware of the important thing, they are missing the importance of this phenomenon, they decide to be naming for these two silicon exhibited different physical properties. They created two vocabularys of "P-type" (positive) and "N-type" (negative) to indicate two obvious different areas. When the beam irradiation, the P-Type Silicon will produce positive potential, N-Type Silicon produces a negative potential, and the photosensitive barrier between the two types of semiconductors is " PN junction. " When Ol found this effect, another scientist Becker was also present, and he had a lot of active silicon in his hand, but he failed to find a photovoltaic effect. "In scientific research, you must work together, you have to pay attention to this very important event; once you find, you have to understand it, know it." Triode
In the fall of 1945, the Bell Labs, USA, established a semiconductor research group, which was responsible by the Schockley of Bell Lab in 1936. Members have Bratton, Patin and other scientists. Xiaokeli specialized in theoretical research, with rich physical ideology, Patama is the master of the actual problem using basic theory; Braton is good at cleverly carry out various experimental experts, their main attack is to discover electronics in semiconductor The method of flowing, explores an electronic device that eliminates tube defects and enlarges, and is studied with silicon, germanium such a semiconductor. In 1946, the semiconductor group made decisions, focusing on two simplest semiconductor materials and silicon, have been prepared by repeated experimental Pudding and Braton have made solid devices. They use two close, the spacing is
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The tentacles are replaced by the gold foil contacts, and the "point contact transistor" is made. Braton recalled this in the history of this inventory to: "I decided to do two more than the surface of the germanium.
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Also close to the contact, and the finest wire diameter of our point in contact is
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This puts a problem in the process. However, due to the help of the technical assistant, I did this, he cut a triangular plastic piece and firmly attaches the gold foil on a flat side thereof. We first connect leads (and power) at both ends of the gold foil to check whether the gold foil is cut, and I carefully use the top of the thin blade to cut the gold foil into two halves, then use the spring pressurization, put the plastic sheet along with The gold foil is pressed on the treated ribs ..., I found out that if I gently shake it, let it get in the best contact position, I get two contacts between the semiconductor with gold foil. One as a emitter and the other as a collector. In this way, I got an amplifier that magnified up to 100 square meters, and until the audio is still clear ". In 1947, they finally made the world's first solid amplifier crystal triode. Write Bratat in the experiment note Road: "Voltage Gain 100, Power Gain 40, Current Loss 1 / 2.5 ...". Xiaochley learned physics in California in the early years, and later he transferred to MIT to study doctorate. In MA, He has tied into a wonderful quantum mechanics world and starts to explore the behavior of the electron beam by a transistor similar to the ordinary salt. Later, Xiaochli started to find a solid material device to replace the usual use. The electronic tube converter and amplifier of communication devices. His familiarity of the quantum world has a clear advantage in this exploration. However, due to the continuous failure, he gives up, turning around to other projects, there is bar Ding and Braton continue to study. In the study of two years of history, Pudding and Bratton accidentally discovered a different successful approach, and finally developed transistor amplifiers. After many years, Xiaokeley recalls: "I am The success of the team's success is reduced by one of the inventors, and I have been working hard in this regard, and the biggest setback I have experienced in the present invention in the present invention. It is futile. "There are many accidental factors in scientific research. Although Xiaochli has not become one of the inventors of the transistor, his research laid the foundation for the breakthrough in the field of electronics and radio communication research, Baden, Bratton Xiaochle also won the 1956 Nobel Physics Award.
Sudden advent of semiconductor amplifiers proved that Kelly (the Bell Laboratory Director at the time) emphasized the decision to conduct basic research on solid physics is very wise. The key to this significant discovery is to recognize the importance of quantum mechanics, especially the extremely important role that the hole is played in the process of carrying charges near the surface of the semiconductor material. Using classic physics theory to understand the performance of the semiconductor material is far less than enough. Secondly, Kelly insisted on multidisciplinary cross-research practices also proved to be a wise choice. In the Bell Lab Semiconductor Research Group, basic theory research, laboratory equipment and technical expertise are tightly combined. It is this combination that results in a successful invented transistor of Pudding and Braton.
In addition, the environments of Pudding, Brat and Xiaokeley grow have a certain difference, but there is an amazing similarities. These three families are rooted in the US Central and Western and Western China, away from the Atlantic Center of Europe. Despite the basic development of the wilderness at the end of the 19th century, it is still prosperous in these remote areas, and people advocate independently and confident. They involved physics although based on their respective reasons, these three people have a common practical vision, which is a significant feature of American A.de Tocqueville [1]. They all believe that science is the motivation of social progress, and it will give people a welfare in a wide range of fields. The pure theory of European physicists, the knowledge and sickness of the inherent logic, at least in the 20th century, especially in the west of the Appalachi, in the west of the Appalachi Mountains. The inventive wave in the early 20th century, can be seen as the American native pragmatic philosophy in the promotion, the invention of transistors is a good example. The appearance of the integrated circuit
The occurrence of transistors reduces the volume of electron equipment, reduced power consumption, and improved reliability. Since the transistor can form a large-scale industrial production, it is cheap to sell, and the cost of electronic equipment is also reduced. However, these changes in electronic components still meet the needs of the rapid development of the electronics industry, for missiles, rockets, artificial satellites and spaceships, urgently need light, small, reliable electronic equipment, transistors can't reach this requirement . Taking a medium-sized electronic computer as an example, its number of electronic components is up to millions, and the single-machine components are increased, and the defects of transistors themselves are exposed. In order to overcome these weaknesses of the transistor, scientists try to make it smaller, with the electrical resistance, capacitance, coil, relay, switch and other components, also along the miniaturized road into micro-electronic components, transistors The smallest has reached only a small rice particle. However, the miniaturization of the transistor itself is of course not unlimited. It has reached a certain degree, it is difficult to shrink, so people turn to the attempt to reform assembly technology, experts will take small transistors and other small components, closely row It is fitted with a thin insulating substrate with a slotted insulating substrate, welding well with ultrasonic or electron beam, and then overlapping the installed substrate, constitutes a highly intensive cube to form a high-density assembly "micro" Module component. With this method, up to more than 2 million components can be encapsulated in the volume of a cubic meter, which reaches the limit of the package density. However, with the increase in weld points in electronic devices, the better the fault is bigger. Although the micromachus assembly narrows the space occupied by the component, it does not reduce the number of solder points between the components. Therefore, the microma assembly can not improve the reliability of the electronic device. At the same time, because the components are too dense, the assembly is inconvenient, the labor intensity has increased, so the cost of electronic devices is impossible to decrease, so that in order to continue to improve electronic equipment, it must be taken. People have found huge potential for miniaturization in the internal structure of transistors. In fact, some parts of the transistor are only the chip, according to the theoretical calculations, a small power transistor chip area is sufficient for tens of square micrometers. However, since the operator is not accurate within a smaller size range, the chip often has a size of 0.5 square millimeters, which means that 99% of the wafer area is quaint, and a transistor except for the chip, lead. The bracket, housing and base, the chip only accounts for about 0.03% of the total weight of the entire transistor, and the volume of the chip also accounts for 0.02% of the total volume. In order to take advantage of these idle spaces, people wanted to package the chips of several transistors in one housing and then extract the electrode leads of each transistor. But immediately discovered that this practice is very limited. Not only does the effective space inside the transistor, it is not only the effective space inside the transistor, but too much soldering point often leads to transistors. For overall, the welding point is not reduced. Reliability still has not improved. So far. The small-scale road of the character tube seems to face desperate situation.
In 1952, the US Radar Research Institute's scientist Daximmer pointed out in an electronic component meeting: "With the progress of the inventions of the transistor, it is currently, it can be expected to make electronic equipment in one without lead. In the solid semiconductor plate, such a solid plate is composed of several insulating, electrically conductive, rectified, and amplified materials, each layer is directly connected to each other, and some function can be achieved. "Rectifying the electronic circuit , Enlarge, insulation, conductive and other functional components, which are made on a semiconductor wafer, and the wafer is fully utilized, and a small wafer turns into a complete circuit, constituting circuits - transistors, resistance, capacitance and leads. A collection into an indiscropable integral whole, from the appearance of which is the transistor, which is a capacitor, which is resistant. Differential components in the traditional circuit have been eliminated, so that the volume of the electronic line is greatly reduced, the reliability is significantly improved, which is the concept of initial integrated circuits. In 1956, the American Materials Science expert Fuller and Rice invented the diffusion process of semiconductor production, providing specific process technology for the development of integrated circuits, 1958, American Texas Instrument, Youth Engineer Kilbe, Inspiration of thought, the new solution for making a complete functional circuit with a semiconductor silicon wafer · When he developed a micro component transistor medium amplifier, a piece of silicon is made into a discrete component, which includes a resistor and capacitance. Circuit, experimental results are very satisfactory. By the end of 1958, they have solved many of the specific process issues in the semiconductor reachabitation element and circuit production, identifying the standard package size of the integrated circuit, and preparing for large-scale industrialization production. In 1959, Novis of American Fairy Company studied a diffusion technique of silica and PN junction, thereby completing all the processes for integrated circuit making. It is followed by photolithography and other techniques, invented inventive, there is a compression of transistors and other functional electronic components to a small semiconductor silicon wafer. In 1961, the United States Texas cooperated with the US Air Force, first using the integrated circuit to make the first experimental computer, the machine has a total of 587 integrated circuits, only 285
Gram
However, there is less than 100 cubic centimeters, and the power consumption is only 16 watts, the operation is reliable, and the work is accurate, fully showing the advancement of the integrated circuit and strong vitality. The integrated circuit that integrates more than 100 alone circuits on a single wafer is called a large-scale integrated circuit. The integrated circuit that can integrate 10,000 door circuits on a single chip is called a large scale integrated circuit. With the advancement and new technologies of the production process, people all transistors and other electronic components contained in a line system or an electronic device are made on a wafer, thereby greatly narrowing the volume and improving reliability. In 1969, the first large-scale integrated circuit has appeared, and then with the improvement of large diameter silicon single crystal materials and the application of the bunch and new isolation technology, especially the intensity of the photolithography process, making it on the wafer The geometry of the electronic components is getting smaller and smaller, so in the mid-1970s, the large-scale integrated circuit came.
Anyone in these people has no independent invented transistors, but they live in a unique American research institution that focuses on multi-discipline. A specific historical period will make the invention of the transistor possible, which even has a certain degree of inevitability. In this multidisciplinary crossed atmosphere, anyone's shortcomings can be compensated by the strengths of others. While the transistor is invented, there is also a technique in which it is equivalent to crystalline growth techniques and crystal partition purified techniques. The advent of these technologies enables people to make a large amount of ultra-pure single crystal silicon and single crystal germanium, without these ultra-purity crystals. Materials, the semiconductor industry cannot exist. The rapid development of modern science and technology is the process of intersection of disciplines,
